Personal Heating in Dwellings as an Innovative, Energy-Sufficient Heating Practice: A Case Study Research
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Review of Personal Heating Studies
1.2.1. Chair Heaters
1.2.2. Foot and Hand Warmers
1.2.3. Combination of Techniques (Chairs, Foot and Wrist Warmers)
1.2.4. Infrared Heaters
1.2.5. Other Techniques
1.3. Research Gap and Hypothesis
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experiment Description
2.2. Implemented Personal Heating Systems
2.3. Evaluation Methods
2.3.1. Survey
2.3.2. Diary
2.3.3. Energy and Temperature Loggers
2.4. Statistical Data Analysis
2.5. Limitations of This Research
3. Results
3.1. Environment
3.1.1. Outdoor Temperature
3.1.2. Indoor Temperature
3.2. Diaries on the Personal Heating Practice
3.3. Thermal Comfort Results Collected by the “Right Here Right Now” Survey
3.3.1. Living Room
Thermal Sensation and Thermal Comfort in the Living Room during the Entire Experimental Period
Thermal Sensation and Thermal Comfort in the Living Room While Making Use of Active Personal Heating Elements
3.3.2. Dining Room
Thermal Sensation and Thermal Comfort in the Dining Room during the Entire Experimental Period
3.3.3. Thermal Sensation and Thermal Comfort in the Dining Room While Making Use of Active Personal Heating Elements
3.3.4. Kitchen
Kitchen Worktop
Kitchen Table
3.3.5. Bathroom
3.4. Energy-Saving Potential
3.4.1. Energy Consumption of the Personal Heating Systems during the Experiment
3.4.2. Energy Savings by Reducing the Heating Set-Point
3.4.3. Energy-Saving Potential of a Personal Heating Practice
4. Discussion
4.1. Evaluation of Personal Heating with Regard to Thermal Comfort
4.2. Effective Thermal Sensation in Relation to the Predicted Mean Vote
4.3. Effectiveness of the Different Personal Heating Systems
4.4. Evaluation of Personal Heating with Regard to Energy Savings
4.5. A personal Heating Practice in Relation to the Global Challenges
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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N° | Ref. | Type of System | Type of Experiment (N° Subjects) | Individual Control | Ambient Temperature [°C] | Comfort/Energy | System/Practice |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study 1 | [20] | Heated chair | Climate chamber (32) | No | 16 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 2 | [21] | Heated chair | Climate chamber (13) | Yes | 14, 16, 18 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 3 | [22] | Heated chair | Climate chamber (23) | Yes | 18, 16 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 4 | [23] | Heated chair | Climate chamber (30) | Yes | 18, 16 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 5 | [24] | Heated chair | Climate chamber (24) | No | 22, 18, 15 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 6 | [25] | Heated chair | Simulations | - | - | Thermal comfort/energy | System/practice |
Study 7 | [26] | Foot warmers (radiant) | Office building (16) | Yes | 20, 19.4, 18.9 | Thermal comfort/energy | System |
Study 8 | [27] | Foot warmer | Thermal manikin/simulations | - | - | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 9 | [28] | Palm warmer Foot warmer | Climate chamber (18) | No/Yes | 18, 20 | Thermal comfort/energy | System |
Study 10 | [29] | Heated chair Leg-warmer | Climate chamber (16) | Yes | 14, 16, 18, 22 | Thermal comfort/energy | System |
Study 11 | [30] | Heated seat Foot warmer Heated seat + foot warmer | Climate chamber (8) | - | 20, 10 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 12 | [31] | Heated chair Heated wrist pad Heated insole | Climate chamber (20)/thermal manikin | - | 18 | Thermal comfort/energy | System |
Study 13 | [32] | Heated chair Heated desk mat Heated floor mat | Climate chamber (13) | Yes | 18 | Thermal comfort/energy | System |
Study 14 | [33] | Heated chair Under-desk radiant heating panel Floor radiant heating panel | Thermal manikin | - | 20 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 15 | [34] | Radiant panel with heated table pad Heated chair with floor mattress Heated clothing | Climate chamber (14) | Yes | 15, 18 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 16 | [35] | Localized floor heating | Thermal manikin | - | - | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 17 | [36] | Electric radiant panels | Simulation | - | 18 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 18 | [37] | Electric radiant panels | Climate chamber (18) | - | 20, 17, 14 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 19 | [38] | Electric radiant panels | Simulation | - | - | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 20 | [39] | Wrist heater | Climate chamber (49) | No/Yes | 20, 23, 26 | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 21 | [40] | Heated seat | Office building | Yes | - | Thermal comfort | System |
Study 22 | [41] | Floor heater | Residential buildings | 8–14 | Thermal comfort | System | |
Study 23 | [42] | Radiant heater, heated clothing | Climate chamber (20) | 13–15 | Thermal comfort | System |
Dwelling 1 | Dwelling 2 | Dwelling 3 | |
---|---|---|---|
Residents | Single, 25–35 years old, man (n° 1) | Couple, 25–35 years old, man (n° 2) and woman (n° 3) | Couple, 25–35 years old, man (n° 4) and woman (n° 5) |
Dwelling size | 162 m2 | 215 m2 | 148 m2 |
Building year | 1990 | Before 1945 (renovated in 1972) | Before 1945 (partially renovated in 2019) |
EPC 1 | 496 kWh/m2year | 370 kWh/m2 | 283 kWh/m2 |
Heating system | Electric accumulation heaters (living, veranda) and electric heaters | Central heating on fuel oil with radiators and floor heating (dining room and bathrooms) | Energy-efficient central heating on gas with radiators |
Infrared Panel | Heated Blanket | Heated Cushions | Floor Mat | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Maximum power | 350 W | 120 W | 100 W | 20 W |
Controls | ON–OFF | 4 heating levels and OFF | 3 heating levels and OFF | ON–OFF |
Question | Question Type | |
---|---|---|
1 | Where are you exactly? (position within the room) | Single option |
2 | In which pose are you? (standing, sitting, lying) | Single option |
3 | Which activity are you performing? | Multiple options |
4 | How do you experience the indoor temperature right now? (thermal sensation) | Likert scale |
5 | What is your thermal comfort right now? (thermal comfort) | Likert scale |
6 | Which clothing type are you wearing? | Multiple options |
7 | How did you come to this comfort state? (e.g., just performed an activity or used a personal heating element) | Open questions |
8 | Do you experience any local discomfort? Where and how? | Open question |
December 2019 | January 2020 | February 2020 | |
---|---|---|---|
Average outdoor temperature | 5.9 °C | 5.9 °C | 7.0 °C |
Minimum outdoor temperature | −2.5 °C | −2.4 °C | −0.9 °C |
Maximum outdoor temperature | 15.4 °C | 12.4 °C | 16.6 °C |
Days minimum outdoor temperature < 0 °C | 6 | 6 | 2 |
Days maximum outdoor temperature < 0 °C | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Average winter outdoor temperature | 3.9 °C | 3.3 °C | 3.7 °C |
Living Room Couch | Dining Room Dining Table | Kitchen Worktop/ Table | Bathroom | Total/ Day | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type of Element | (2×) Infrared Panel | (2×) Blanket | (2×) Infrared Panel | (4×) Cushions (2×) Floor Mat | (4×) Cushions (2×) Floor Mat | (1×) Infrared Panel | ||
Combined maximum power | 700 W | 240 W | 700 W | 440 W | 440 W | 350 W | ||
Total energy consumption during the experiment | Case 1 10 days | 11.68 kWh | 1.13 kWh | 0 kWh | 0 kWh | 0 kWh | 0.03 kWh | 1.28 kWh |
Case 2 7 days | 3.35 kWh | 1.38 kWh | 1.19 kWh | 0.32 kWh | 0 kWh | 0.01 kWh | 0.89 kWh | |
Case 3 7 days | 5.18 kWh | 1.96 kWh | 0 kWh | 0.24 kWh | 0 kWh | 0.43 kWh | 1.11 kWh | |
Average energy consumption/day | 0.80 kWh | 0.20 kWh | 0.06 kWh | 0.03 kWh | 0 kWh | 0.02 kWh | 1.10 kWh |
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Van Loy, N.; Verbeeck, G.; Knapen, E. Personal Heating in Dwellings as an Innovative, Energy-Sufficient Heating Practice: A Case Study Research. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7257. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137257
Van Loy N, Verbeeck G, Knapen E. Personal Heating in Dwellings as an Innovative, Energy-Sufficient Heating Practice: A Case Study Research. Sustainability. 2021; 13(13):7257. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137257
Chicago/Turabian StyleVan Loy, Nick, Griet Verbeeck, and Elke Knapen. 2021. "Personal Heating in Dwellings as an Innovative, Energy-Sufficient Heating Practice: A Case Study Research" Sustainability 13, no. 13: 7257. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137257