Empirical Evidence in Ecuador between Economic Growth and Environmental Deterioration
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. CO2 Emissions, Electric Power Consumption, and Gross Value Added (GVA) in Ecuador
3. Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) and Carbon Kuznets Curve (CKC)
3.1. Conceptualization EKC and CKC
3.2. Empirical Evidence
4. Methodology
4.1. Study Variables
- The number of vehicles per capita (VEHICLESPC). The series for the 2007–2014 period was obtained from transportation statistics at provincial level of the National Institute of Statistics and Census [92].
- Years of schooling by province (SCH). They are obtained from the System of Social Indicators of Ecuador [95].
4.2. Empirical Analysis Model for CKC Estimation
5. Results and Interpretation of the CKC Models
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Data | Source of Information |
---|---|---|
CO2 emissions (tons) | Energy consumption (MGW) by province (2007–2014). | Annual and multi-year statistics for the Ecuadorian electricity sector. Agency for Regulation and Control of Electricity [54]. |
CO2 emission factor of Ecuador National Interconnected System for the years 2011, 2012 and 2013; and for the years from 2007 to 2010, the emission factor for 2011 was used. | CO2 emission factor of Ecuador National Interconnected System. Agency for Regulation and Control of Electricity and Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy [54] and the Central Bank of Ecuador [53]. | |
Number of vehicles | Number of motorized vehicles registered, according to provinces (2007–2014). | Transportation statistics. Annual reports (2007 – 2014). National Institute of Statistics and Censuses [92]. |
Provincial Gross Added Value | Gross Provincial Added Value (2007–2014). | Provincial accounts 2007–2014. Central Bank of Ecuador [53]. |
Poverty due to income | Income poverty index (province) (2007–2014). | Calculations from the Survey of employment, unemployment and underemployment, quarterly urban, period 2007–2014. National Institute of Statistics and Censuses [52,93,94]. |
Years of schooling | Years of Schooling (2007–2014). | Years of Schooling by province, period 2007–2014. Integrated System of Social Indicators of Ecuador [95]. |
Gini coefficient | Gini coefficient, provincial (2007–2014). | The regional inequality in Ecuador. Prepared based on national employment and unemployment surveys (ENEMDU) surveys [52,93,94]. |
CO2 | Fixed Effects | Random Effects |
---|---|---|
VEHICLESPC | 1.1109 | 1.0517 |
(5.69) (0.000) | (5.25) (0.000) | |
GVAPC | 0.0134 | 0.0118 |
(4.72) (0.000) | (4.30) (0.000) | |
GVAPC2 | −0.0002 | −0.0001 |
(−3.92) (0.000) | (−3.65) (0.000) | |
GINI | 0.0976 | 0.1069 |
(0.86) (0.393) | (0.90) (0.370) | |
SCH | −0.0273 | -0.024 |
(−2.63) (0.009) | (−2.30) (0.021) | |
PPI | -0.0515 | −0.0987 |
(−0.70) (0.487) | (−1.29) (0.196) | |
_cons | 0.4176 | 0.4138 |
(3.83) (0.000) | (3.63) (0.000) | |
sigma_u | 0.1579 | 0.1135 |
sigma_e | 0.0432 | 0.0432 |
rho | 0.9302 | 0.8731 |
R2 | 0.421 | 0.414 |
F for μ_i = 0 | ||
F (20, 135) | 54.17 | |
n | 162 | 162 |
CO2 | c | SAR EF | SAC | SEM EF | SEM RE | GSRPE | SDM RE | SDM FE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
VEHICLESPC | 1.2172 | 1.2405 | 1.7771 | 1.6941 | 1.7192 | 1.7253 | 2.0519 | 2.0716 |
(6.24) (0.000) | (6.74) (0.000) | (10.18) (0.000) | (8.27) (0.000) | (7.78) (0.000) | (7.75) (0.000) | (9.88) (0.000) | (10.64) (0.000) | |
GVAPC | 0.0154 | 0.0166 | 0.0157 | 0.01766 | 0.0167 | 0.0167 | 0.0148 | 0.0159 |
(5.68) (0.000) | (6.29) (0.000) | (7.28) (0.000) | (7.49) (0.000) | (6.89) (0.000) | (6.90) (0.000) | (6.19) (0.000) | (6.98) (0.000) | |
GVAPC2 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 |
(−4.94) (0.000) | (−5.40) (0.000) | (−6.41) (0.000) | (−6.54) (0.000) | (−6.06) (0.000) | (−6.07) (0.000) | (−5.32) (0.000) | (−5.93) (0.000) | |
GINI | −0.0093 | −0.0156 | −0.0138 | −0.0242 | −0.0329 | −0.0335 | −0.0479 | −0.0459 |
(−0.09) (0.930) | (−0.16) (0.874) | (−0.19) (0.852) | (−0.29) (0.774) | (−0.37) (0.714) | (−0.37) (0.709) | (−0.52) (0.606) | (−0.53) (0.595) | |
SCH | −0.0291 | −0.0311 | −0.0278 | −0.0355 | −0.0325 | −0.0325 | −0.0184 | −0.0209 |
(−2.82) (0.005) | (−3.17) (0.002) | (−3.02) (0.002) | (−3.64) (0.000) | (−0.89) (0.372) | (−3.15) (0.002) | (−1.79) (0.074) | (−2.13) (0.033) | |
PPI | 0.0057 | 0.0319 | −0.0608 | −0.0314 | −0.0554 | −0.0566 | −0.0721 | −0.0523 |
(0.08) (0.936) | (0.48) (0.631) | (−1.19) (0.235) | (−0.54) (0.592) | (−0.89) (0.372) | (−0.91) (0.363) | (−1.10) (0.272) | (−0.85) (0.394) | |
W VEHICLESPC | −1.4171 | −1.442 | ||||||
(−4.24) (0.000) | (−4.61) (0.000) | |||||||
W GVAPC | −0.0166 | −0.0196 | ||||||
(−2.76) (0.000) | (−3.32) (0.001) | |||||||
W GVAPC2 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | ||||||
(−2.58) (0.010) | (−3.16) (0.002) | |||||||
W GINI | 0.0011 | −0.0216 | ||||||
(−0.10) (0.994) | (−0.15) (0.880) | |||||||
W SCH | 0.0191 | 0.022 | ||||||
(1.16) (0.247) | (1.41) (0.158) | |||||||
W PPI | 0.1682 | 0.1619 | ||||||
(1.29) (0.196) | (1.32) (0.187) | |||||||
_cons | 0.4639 | 0.4648 | 0.1678 | |||||
(3.53) (0.000) | (4.38) (0.000) | (4.41) (0.000) | (0.92) (0.355) | |||||
μ med | 0.0871 | 0.473 | 0.1602 | |||||
ρ | 0.1167 | 0.1331 | −0.4417 | 0.362 | 0.4067 | |||
(1.22) (0.223) | (1.42) (0.156) | (−4.22) (0.000) | (4.04) (0.000) | (4.74) (0.000) | ||||
λ | 0.6942 | 0.5338 | 0.5573 | 0.5597 | ||||
(−10.96) (0.000) | (5.83) (0.000) | (5.71) (0.000) | (5.72) (0.000) | |||||
ф | −0.0746 | |||||||
(−0.25) (0.805) | ||||||||
n | 168 | 168 | 168 | 168 | 168 | 168 | 168 | 168 |
SDM RE | |||
Direct | Indirect | Totals | |
VEHICLESPC | 1.9808*** | −0.9774** | 1.0034** |
GVAPC | 0.0137*** | −0.0178** | −0.0041 |
GVAPC2 | −0.0002*** | 0.0002** | 0.0001 |
GINI | −0.0491 | −0.0179 | −0.067 |
SCH | −0.015 | 0.0175 | 0.0025 |
PPI | −0.0415 | 0.2075 | 0.166 |
SDM FE | |||
Direct | Indirect | Totals | |
VEHICLESPC | 1.9981*** | −0.9099** | 1.0882** |
GVAPC | 0.0145*** | −0.0215** | −0.007 |
GVAPC2 | −0.0002*** | 0.0003** | 0.0001 |
GINI | −0.0514 | −0.0697 | −0.1211 |
SCH | −0.0171 | 0.0221 | 0.005 |
PPI | −0.0204 | 0.2222 | 0.2018 |
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Massa-Sánchez, P.; Quintana-Romero, L.; Correa-Quezada, R.; del Río-Rama, M.d.l.C. Empirical Evidence in Ecuador between Economic Growth and Environmental Deterioration. Sustainability 2020, 12, 853. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12030853
Massa-Sánchez P, Quintana-Romero L, Correa-Quezada R, del Río-Rama MdlC. Empirical Evidence in Ecuador between Economic Growth and Environmental Deterioration. Sustainability. 2020; 12(3):853. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12030853
Chicago/Turabian StyleMassa-Sánchez, Priscilla, Luis Quintana-Romero, Ronny Correa-Quezada, and María de la Cruz del Río-Rama. 2020. "Empirical Evidence in Ecuador between Economic Growth and Environmental Deterioration" Sustainability 12, no. 3: 853. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12030853