Constraints and Consequences of Online Teaching
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Literature Review
1.1.1. Constrains and Stress for Teachers (CONSS)
1.1.2. Negative Affects related to Stress (NEGAFF) and Positive Affects (POSAFF)
1.1.3. Teachers Resilience and Coping (RESIL)
1.1.4. Organizational and Professional Support (SUPP)
1.1.5. Work Engagement (WENG)
1.1.6. Analyzed Indicators and Implications for the Sustainability of Education
1.2. Conceptual Model and Hypothesis
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample and Data Collection
2.2. Instruments and Measures
- the dimension of changes at professional level—PERSCHANGE (6 indicators, referring to the impact of changes in the current socio-professional context: familiarization with the tools and platforms used in online teaching activities, adaptation of teaching content for this type of education, etc.);
- the dimension of the constraining conditions and stress generators—CONSTRESS (10 indicators, which referred to the stress determined by the use of new technologies, rapid professional change, demotivation, exhaustion, frustration, etc.);
- the dimension of negative affects and burnout symptoms—NEGAFF (6 indicators measuring the presence of some emotional states as: loneliness, anxiety, hopelessness and loss of meaning in life, etc.);
- the dimension of positive affects—POSAFF (4 indicators including feelings such as love, joy, hope, etc.);
- the dimension of resilience and coping behaviors—RESIL (it initially contained 7 indicators, referring to spending time for pleasant habits and hobbies, outdoor walks, sports, future plans, etc.);
- the dimension of work engagement—WORKENG (10 indicators, including enthusiasm, creativity, help for pupils/students, professional fulfillment, etc.);
- the dimension of the socio-professional help received by teachers—SUPPORT (5 indicators referring to family, friends, school or university management, NGOs and institutions with educational support).
- (a)
- 1. Never, 2. Rarely, 3. Occasionally, 4. Often, 5. Nearly always;
- (b)
- 1. To a very small extent, 2. To a small extent, 3. To a moderate extent, 4. To a large extent, 5. To a very large extent.
2.3. Multivariate Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
3.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
3.3. Testing Hypothesis and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
3.4. Complementary Analysis
4. Discussion
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Dimensions/Indicators | Measuring Scale |
---|---|
Perschange/6 items spending time for familiarization with the online tools spending time for adaptation of taught content for online education struggling with uncertainty in professional activity making effort for students to actively participate to online meetings making effort to evaluate students feeling compelled to compromise on education | (1—Significantly decreased, 5—Significantly increased) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Job constrains and stress/10 items feeling that everything about work was changing too quick feeling detached from work feeling frustrated with online teaching being demotivated about job feeling mentally tired feeling exhausted in activity having insomnia feeling like crying feeling tensioned about online teaching feeling to have too much to do and too little time | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Negative affects/6 items feeling alone being stressed feeling nervous feeling depressed feeling hopeless losing the meaning of life | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Positive affects/4 items feeling gratitude for having my family around having hope that things will change for better feeling the pleasure of having extra time for me feeling the joy of nature and beautiful weather | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Resilience and coping behaviors/7 items focusing on good interacting with family making personal future plans enjoying sleep and rest enjoying time for personal activities involving in old activities and hobbies making outdoor walks doing sport and physical activities | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Work Engagement/10 items creating a positive atmosphere among the participants in the online activities. feeling enthusiastic about work being creative in teaching online being fulfilled with job feeling that helped students to learn being energetic in professional tasks feeling engaged in the educational process feeling connected with students feeling passionate about work feeling like a role model for students | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Professional Support/5 items receiving support from my family receiving support from students and their families receiving support from school management receiving support from local NGOs and professional associations receiving support help from county level and national institutions | (1—To a very small extent, 5—To a very large extent) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
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Study Universe | 234.647 Romanian Teachers |
Geographical Scope | Romania, 41 counties |
Data Collection Method | Structured questionnaire distributed to professors via internet link/email |
Sample Unit | Teachers in all forms of education (primary school, gymnasium, high school, university |
Sample | 400 teachers |
Margin of Error (Confidence Interval) | ±4.9% |
Confidence Level | 95%; z = 1.96; p = 0.5 |
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.867 | |
---|---|---|
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square | 8796.611 |
Degrees of freedom (df) | 1128 | |
Significance probability (Sig.) | 0.000 |
Factor | Total | % of Variance | Cumulative |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 5.534 | 25.155 | 25.155 |
2 | 3.209 | 14.586 | 39.741 |
3 | 2.318 | 10.536 | 50.277 |
4 | 1.805 | 8.206 | 58.483 |
5 | 1.718 | 7.808 | 66.291 |
Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | Factor 4 | Factor 5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indicators | Work Engagement | Resilience | Job Constrains and Stress | Negative Effects | Professional Support |
workeng 3 | 0.821 | −0.048 | −0.162 | −0.116 | 0.013 |
workeng 4 | 0.780 | 0.036 | −0.160 | −0.100 | 0.006 |
workeng 2 | 0.730 | 0.044 | −0.190 | −0.112 | 0.082 |
workeng 9 | 0.710 | 0.097 | −0.037 | −0.004 | 0.040 |
workeng 8 | 0.679 | 0.148 | −0.122 | −0.006 | 0.132 |
workeng 5 | 0.621 | 0.096 | −0.038 | −0.015 | 0.102 |
resil 3 | 0.075 | 0.797 | −0.038 | 0.002 | −0.006 |
resil 7 | 0.076 | 0.778 | −0.020 | −0.036 | 0.136 |
resil 6 | 0.040 | 0.775 | −0.112 | −0.065 | 0.197 |
posaff 2 | 0.110 | 0.749 | −0.088 | −0.105 | 0.088 |
resil 1 | 0.077 | 0.649 | −0.053 | 0.031 | −0.014 |
resil 4 | 0.006 | 0.552 | −0.107 | −0.025 | 0.112 |
constress2 | −0.230 | −0.010 | 0.815 | 0.172 | −0.074 |
constress1 | −0.089 | −0.047 | 0.732 | 0.117 | 0.062 |
perschange2 | −0.182 | −0.108 | 0.597 | 0.015 | −0.075 |
constress4 | −0.104 | −0.285 | 0.586 | 0.105 | −0.184 |
negaff5 | −0.086 | −0.078 | 0.185 | 0.853 | −0.100 |
negaff6 | −0.077 | −0.046 | 0.062 | 0.825 | −0.019 |
negaff4 | −0.086 | −0.022 | 0.105 | 0.755 | −0.038 |
support4 | 0.134 | 0.074 | −0.020 | −0.111 | 0.724 |
support5 | 0.121 | 0.157 | −0.038 | −0.001 | 0.708 |
support3 | 0.023 | 0.119 | −0.109 | −0.026 | 0.664 |
Variance explained | 25.15% | 14.58% | 10.53% | 8.20% | 7.80% |
Eigen Value | 5.53 | 3.20 | 2.31 | 1.80 | 1.71 |
Cronbach’s alpha | 0.81 | 0.86 | 0.80 | 0.86 | 0.76 |
Factors/Items | Measuring Scale |
---|---|
Work Engagement/6 items feeling enthusiastic about work being creative in teaching online being fulfilled with job feeling that I helped students to learn being energetic in professional tasks feeling engaged in the educational process | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Resilience and coping behaviors/6 items focusing on the good interaction with family making personal future plans enjoying sleep and rest enjoying time for personal activities involving in old activities and hobbies making outdoor walks | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Job constrains and stress/4 items feeling that everything about work is changing too quickly being tensioned about online teaching feeling the stress of adapting to new technologies feeling exhausted related to teaching online | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Negative affects/3 items feeling hopeless feeling depressed losing the meaning of life | (1—Never, 5—Nearly always) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Professional Support/3 items receiving support from school management receiving support from local NGOs and professional associations receiving support help from county level and national institutions | (1—to a very small extent, 5—to a very large extent) Rating by answer from 1 to 5 for each item ascending |
Factors | CR | AVE | MSV | ASV |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0.878 | 0.548 | 0.174 | 0.042 |
2 | 0.873 | 0.537 | 0.093 | 0.035 |
3 | 0.807 | 0.516 | 0.174 | 0.069 |
4 | 0.866 | 0.684 | 0.122 | 0.047 |
5 | 0.761 | 0.516 | 0.093 | 0.036 |
Statistics | χ2 | df | p | χ2/df | GFI | CFI | RMSEA | PCLOSE | SRMR | TLI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Recommended values | <3 | >0.9 | >0.9 | <0.08 | >0.05 | <0.08 | >0.9 | |||
T0 | 446.96 | 199 | 0.000 | 2.24 | 0.90 | 0.94 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.93 |
T1 | 390.68 | 197 | 0.000 | 1.98 | 0.91 | 0.95 | 0.05 | 0.53 | 0.05 | 0.95 |
Hypothesized Relationships | β | S.E. | C.R. | p | Decision |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
H1: Job constrains and stress → Work engagement | −0.42 | 0.05 | −7.456 | *** | Accepted |
H2: Job constrains and stress → Negative affects | 0.36 | 0.06 | 6.295 | *** | Accepted |
H3: Job constrains and stress → Resilience | −0.17 | 0.07 | −2.916 | < 0.05 | Accepted |
H4: Received Support → Resilience | 0.27 | 0.07 | 4.164 | *** | Accepted |
H5: Work engagement → Received Support | 0.16 | 0.07 | 2.378 | <0.05 | Accepted |
H6: Negative affects → Work engagement | −0.07 | 0.04 | −1.657 | >0.05 | Rejected |
H7: Stress → Resilience → Work engagement | CONSS to RESIL direct effect significant RESIL to WENG direct effect not significant Indirect effect from CONSS to WENG via RESIL not significant | Rejected |
Indices | Calculation Method or Formula |
---|---|
Maximum score of indicators (MaxSI) = 2000 | The theoretical number if each respondent were to score 5 points for each indicator |
Minimum score of indicators (MinSI) = 400 | The theoretical number if each respondent were to score 1 point for each indicator |
Maximum dimension score (MaxSD) | MSD = MaxSI number of measured indicators |
Minimum dimension score (MinSD) | MinSD = MinSI number of measured indicators |
Dimensional score (DS) | The empirical (cumulative) score, resulting from adding IS for each dimension |
Indicator score (IS) | The empirical (cumulative) score, resulting from adding the answers for all respondents, for each indicator |
Dimensional average score (DAI) | The average of indicator’s score for each dimension |
Dimension Containing Indicators Number | Framing in Scale Intervals | DAI for Each Dimension | The Indicator Contributing the Most to DAI | The Indicator Contributing the Least to DAI |
---|---|---|---|---|
CONSS (4) | from moderate to high | 1340.25 | feeling the stress of adapting to new technologies | being tensioned about online teaching |
RESIL (6) | from low to moderate | 1104.16 | enjoying time for personal activities | making outdoor walks |
SUPP (3) | from low to moderate | 1118 | receiving support from school management | receiving support help from county level and national institutions |
NEGAFF (3) | from very low to low | 732.66 | feeling hopeless | losing the meaning of life |
WENG (6) | from moderate to high | 1300.5 | feeling enthusiastic about work | losing the meaning of life |
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Obrad, C. Constraints and Consequences of Online Teaching. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6982. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176982
Obrad C. Constraints and Consequences of Online Teaching. Sustainability. 2020; 12(17):6982. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176982
Chicago/Turabian StyleObrad, Ciprian. 2020. "Constraints and Consequences of Online Teaching" Sustainability 12, no. 17: 6982. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176982