New Green Tax Reforms: Ex-Ante Assessments for Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Context
3. Methodology and Material
3.1. Data
3.2. Considered Reforms
3.2.1. Scenario 1. Increased Excise Taxes on Energy
3.2.2. Scenario 2. New Taxes on Emissions
3.2.3. Scenario 3. Eliminating the Electricity Tariff from the Support Costs for Renewable, Cogeneration and Waste
3.2.4. Scenario 4. Taxes on Emissions and the Financing of Renewables
4. Results
4.1. Scenario 1. Increase in the Excise Taxes on Energy
4.1.1. Reform 1A. Minimums for 2018 Directive Proposal. Fiscal Consolidation
4.1.2. Reform 1B. Weighted Average of the Main EU Countries. Fiscal Consolidation
4.2. Scenario 2. New Taxes on Emissions
4.2.1. Reform 2A. Taxes on Emissions for CO2 (€10/t), SO2 (€1000/t) and NOx (€1000/t). Fiscal Consolidation
4.2.2. Reform 2B. Taxes on CO2 Emissions (€30/t), SO2 (€2000/t) and NOx (€2000/t). Fiscal Consolidation
4.3. Scenario 3. Eliminating the Support costs for Renewable, Cogeneration and waste from the Electricity Bill
4.3.1. Reform 3A. Eliminating the Cost of Supporting Renewable Energies, Cogeneration and Waste from the Electricity Tariff, through a Tax on the Energy Sectors (Consumption)
4.3.2. Reform 3B. Suppression of the Costs of Supporting Renewable Energies, Cogeneration from Electricity Consumers and Financing these Costs with a Tax on the Energy Sectors that Considers Price Reaction (Ramsey)
4.4. Scenario 4. Taxes on Emissions and the Financing of Renewables
4.4.1. Reform 4A. Taxes on CO2 Emissions (€30/t), SO2 (€2000/t) and NOx (€2000/t) and the Suppression of the Cost of Promoting Renewables in the Electricity Bill
4.4.2. Reform 4B. Taxes on CO2, SO2 and NOx Emissions and Suppression of the Cost of Promoting Renewable Electricity Rates. Revenue Neutrality
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Electricity (Households) | Electricity (Industrial) | Natural Gas (Households) | Natural Gas (Industrial) | Automotive Diesel (Non-Commercial) | Automotive Diesel (Commercial) | Unleaded Gasoline (95 RON) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
France | 36.20% | 22.08% | 27.04% | 16.23% | 59.41% | 51.29% | 62.43% |
Germany | 53.83% | 49.10% | 24.38% | 15.67% | 52.40% | 42.61% | 60.64% |
Italy | 32.82% | 34.83% | 35.80% | 11.93% | 59.87% | 51.01% | 63.58% |
Spain | 21.39% | 4.88% | 20.25% | 2.16% | 47.65% | 36.66% | 52.89% |
UK | 4.75% | 3.82% | 4.76% | 3.52% | 61.82% | 54.22% | 63.13% |
EU-23 1 | 31.04% | 21.43% | 23.70% | 10.59% | 55.00% | 45.49% | 60.22% |
Energy Product | Type of Consumer | Prices and Taxes on Energy Products (€/MWh). 2016 | Excise Tax | VAT | Costs of Support to Renewable, Cogeneration and Waste | Other Charges | Final Price |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | 119.21 | 5.11% 2 | 21% 1 | 51.37 | 17.57 | 239.3 |
Electricity | Industrial | 73.46 | 5.11% 2 | - | 14.34 | 11.62 | 104.5 |
Natural gas | Residential | 63.91 | 2.34 | 21% 1 | - | - | 80.16 |
Natural gas | Industrial | 23.35 | 0.54 | - | - | - | 23.89 |
Diesel | Residential | 47.73 | 37.37 | 21% 1 | - | - | 102.97 |
Diesel | Industrial | 47.73 | 37.37 | - | - | - | 85.1 |
Gasoline | Residential | 53.82 | 50.85 | 21% 1 | - | - | 126.65 |
Gasoline | Industrial | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Product | Elasticity |
---|---|
Electricity | −0.203 |
Natural gas | −0.242 |
Diesel | −0.201 |
Gasoline | −0.253 |
Energy Product | Emissions (€/CO2 ton) | Energy Consumption (€/GJ) | Tax Rate |
---|---|---|---|
Electricity | 0 | 0.15 | 0.540 €/MWh |
Natural gas | 20 | 0.15 | 4.579 €/MWh |
Diesel | 20 | 9.6 | 0.397 €/L |
Gasoline | 20 | 6.6 | 0.353 €/L |
Energy Product | France | Germany | Italy | United Kingdom | Weighted Average |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity (residential) (€/MWh) | 34.86 | 110.70 | 69.00 | - | 56.73 |
Electricity (industrial) (€/MWh) | 24.79 | 61.40 | 70.70 | 4.27 | 40.93 |
Natural gas (residential) (€/MWh) | 5.58 | 5.50 | 15.22 | - | 6.34 |
Natural gas (industrial) (€/MWh) | 3.94 | 4.03 | 4.46 | 0.77 | 3.32 |
Diesel (€/L) | 0.511 | 0.470 | 0.617 | 0.708 | 0.569 |
Gasoline (€/L) | 0.648 | 0.655 | 0.728 | 0.708 | 0.682 |
Product | Consumption | Ramsey | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | |
Electricity | 20.76% | 36.67% | 27.39% | 35.10% |
Natural gas | 16.48% | 42.55% | 22.97% | 29.45% |
Diesel | 48.43% | 20.79% | 27.66% | 35.45% |
Gasoline | 14.33% | - | 21.98% | - |
Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | - | - | - | - | - |
Natural gas | 3.38% | 6.27% | −0.82% | −1.52% | −1.36% |
Diesel | 3.46% | 3.46% | −0.70% | −0.70% | −0.70% |
Gasoline | - | - | - | - | - |
Excise Tax | VAT | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | - | - | - | - |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | |
Total | - | - | - | - | |
Natural gas | Residential | 125.81 | 20.15 | 145.96 | 15.72 |
Industrial | 766.88 | - | 766.88 | 735.10 | |
Total | 892.69 | 20.15 | 912.84 | 88.36 | |
Diesel | Residential | 447.70 | 82.30 | 530.01 | 5.71 |
Industrial | 251.52 | - | 251.52 | 7.13 | |
Total | 699.23 | 82.30 | 781.53 | 6.10 | |
Gasoline | Residential | - | - | - | - |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | |
Total | - | - | - | - | |
Total | Residential | 573.52 | 102.45 | 675.97 | 3.16 |
Industrial | 1018.40 | - | 1018.40 | 14.57 | |
Total | 1591.92 | 102.45 | 1694.37 | 5.97 |
Energy Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | 23.82% | 34.30% | −4.84% | −6.96% | −6.32% |
Natural gas | 6.04% | 4.31% | −1.46% | −1.04% | −1.14% |
Diesel | 23.99% | 23.99% | −4.82% | −4.82% | −4.82% |
Gasoline | 23.13% | - | −5.85% | - | −5.85% |
Excise Tax | VAT | Renewables | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | 3194.66 | 533.30 | −188.17 | 3539.79 | 46.73 |
Industrial | 5493.59 | - | −174.85 | 318.75 | 158.43 | |
Total | 8688.25 | 533.30 | −363.02 | 8858.54 | 81.04 | |
Natural gas | Residential | 223.30 | 35.69 | - | 258.98 | 27.88 |
Industrial | 530.37 | - | - | 530.37 | 508.40 | |
Total | 753.67 | 35.69 | - | 789.36 | 76.40 | |
Diesel | Residential | 2961.56 | 540.74 | - | 3502.30 | 37.73 |
Industrial | 1663.82 | - | - | 1663.82 | 47.17 | |
Total | 4625.38 | 540.74 | - | 5166.12 | 40.33 | |
Gasoline | Residential | 985.43 | 174.05 | - | 1159.48 | 32.02 |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | ||
Total | 985.43 | 174.05 | - | 1159.48 | 32.02 | |
Total | Residential | 7364.95 | 1283.78 | −188.17 | 8460.55 | 39.52 |
Industrial | 7687.79 | - | −174.85 | 7512.94 | 107.50 | |
Total | 15052.73 | 1283.78 | −363.02 | 15973.49 | 56.25 |
Energy Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | 0.22% | 0.42% | −0.04% | −0.08% | −0.07% |
Natural Gas | 3.02% | 3.10% | −0.73% | −0.75% | −0.75% |
Diesel | 4.25% | 4.25% | −0.85% | −0.85% | −0.85% |
Gasoline | 2.99% | - | −0.76% | - | −0.76% |
Excise Tax | VAT | CO2 Tax | NOx/SO2 Tax | Renewables | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | −0.31 | 5.23 | - | 31.28 | −1.74 | 34.47 | 0.46 |
Industrial | −0.71 | - | - | 72.30 | −2.12 | 69.46 | 2.07 | |
Total | −1.02 | 5.23 | - | 103.58 | −3.86 | 103.93 | 0.95 | |
Natural gas | Residential | −0.98 | 18.01 | 103.19 | 10.21 | - | 130.44 | 14.04 |
Industrial | −0.78 | - | 348.77 | 34.51 | - | 382.50 | 366.65 | |
Total | −1.76 | 18.01 | 451.96 | 44.72 | - | 512.93 | 49.65 | |
Diesel | Residential | −53.69 | 100.96 | 423.43 | 179.59 | - | 650.29 | 7.01 |
Industrial | −30.16 | - | 237.89 | 100.89 | - | 308.62 | 8.75 | |
Total | −83.85 | 100.96 | 661.32 | 280.48 | - | 958.91 | 7.49 | |
Gasoline | Residential | −19.10 | 24.13 | 119.26 | 34.93 | - | 159.22 | 4.40 |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Total | −19.10 | 24.13 | 119.26 | 34.93 | - | 159.22 | 4.40 | |
Total | Residential | −74.07 | 148.33 | 645.88 | 256.01 | −1.74 | 974.42 | 4.55 |
Industrial | −31.66 | - | 586.65 | 207.70 | −2.12 | 760.58 | 10.88 | |
Total | −105.73 | 148.33 | 1232.53 | 463.71 | −3.86 | 1735.00 | 6.11 |
Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | 2.11% | 3.99% | −0.43% | −0.81% | −0.70% |
Natural Gas | 8.78% | 9.03% | −2.12% | −2.18% | −2.17% |
Diesel | 11.49% | 11.49% | −2.31% | −2.31% | −2.31% |
Gasoline | 8.28% | - | −2.09% | - | −2.09% |
Excise Tax | VAT | CO2 Tax | NOx/SO2 Tax | Renewables | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | 6.59 | 50.02 | 186.96 | 102.67 | −16.67 | 329.58 | 4.35 |
Industrial | 15.16 | - | 430.63 | 236.48 | −20.35 | 661.91 | 19.72 | |
Total | 21.75 | 50.02 | 617.59 | 339.15 | −37.02 | 991.49 | 9.07 | |
Natural Gas | Residential | −2.84 | 51.43 | 305.22 | 20.14 | - | 373.95 | 40.26 |
Industrial | −2.28 | - | 1031.18 | 68.03 | - | 1096.93 | 1051.49 | |
Total | −5.12 | 51.43 | 1336.41 | 88.17 | - | 1470.88 | 142.37 | |
Diesel | Residential | −145.07 | 267.79 | 1251.65 | 353.90 | - | 1728.27 | 18.62 |
Industrial | −81.50 | - | 703.18 | 198.82 | - | 820.51 | 23.26 | |
Total | −226.57 | 267.79 | 1954.83 | 552.72 | - | 2548.78 | 19.90 | |
Gasoline | Residential | -52.96 | 65.70 | 352.95 | 68.92 | - | 434.61 | 12.00 |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Total | −52.96 | 65.70 | 352.95 | 68.92 | - | 434.61 | 12.00 | |
Total | Residential | −194.28 | 434.94 | 2096.78 | 545.63 | −16.67 | 2866.41 | 13.39 |
Industrial | −68.62 | - | 2165.00 | 503.33 | −20.35 | 2579.35 | 36.91 | |
Total | −262.90 | 434.94 | 4261.78 | 1048.96 | −37.02 | 5445.76 | 19.18 |
Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | −18.86% | −9.33% | 3.83% | 1.89% | 2.48% |
Natural Gas | 15.31% | 8.78% | −3.71% | −2.13% | −2.49% |
Diesel | 12.57% | 7.24% | −2.53% | −1.46% | −2.14% |
Gasoline | 10.70% | - | −2.71% | - | −2.71% |
Excise Tax | VAT | New Tax | Renewables | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | −180.05 | −471.00 | 1458.84 | −3891.26 | −3083.47 | −40.71 |
Industrial | −114.78 | - | 1035.43 | −2510.87 | −1590.22 | −47.37 | |
Total | −294.83 | −471.00 | 2494.26 | −6402.13 | −4673.69 | −42.75 | |
Natural Gas | Residential | −4.96 | 87.78 | 558.29 | - | 641.12 | 69.03 |
Industrial | −2.22 | - | 1070.52 | - | 1068.30 | 1024.04 | |
Total | −7.17 | 87.78 | 1628.82 | - | 1709.42 | 165.46 | |
Diesel | Residential | −158.59 | 291.94 | 1751.33 | - | 1884.68 | 20.31 |
Industrial | −51.35 | - | 573.26 | - | 521.92 | 14.80 | |
Total | −209.94 | 291.94 | 2324.60 | - | 2406.60 | 18.79 | |
Gasoline | Residential | −68.46 | 84.21 | 541.92 | - | 557.67 | 15.40 |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Total | −68.46 | 84.21 | 541.92 | - | 557.67 | 15.40 | |
Total | Residential | −412.06 | −7.07 | 4310.39 | −3891.26 | 0 | 0 |
Industrial | −168.34 | - | 2679.21 | −2510.87 | 0 | 0 | |
Total | −580.40 | −7.07 | 6989.60 | −6402.13 | 0 | 0 |
Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | −17.33% | −9.55% | 3.52% | 1.93% | 2.42% |
Natural Gas | 21.72% | 6.04% | −5.26% | −1.46% | −2.33% |
Diesel | 7.08% | 12.50% | −1.42% | −2.51% | −1.82% |
Gasoline | 16.72% | - | −4.23% | - | −4.23% |
Excise | VAT | New Tax | Renewables | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | −181.57 | −431.40 | 1678.73 | −3891.26 | −2825.50 | −37.30 |
Industrial | −114.45 | - | 995.83 | −2510.87 | −1629.49 | −48.54 | |
Total | −296.02 | −431.40 | 2674.56 | −6402.13 | −4454.99 | −40.75 | |
Natural Gas | Residential | −7.03 | 121.84 | 779.20 | - | 894.00 | 96.25 |
Industrial | −1.52 | - | 740.86 | - | 739.34 | 708.71 | |
Total | −8.55 | 121.84 | 1520.06 | - | 1633.34 | 158.10 | |
Diesel | Residential | −89.44 | 166.98 | 998.82 | - | 1076.36 | 11.60 |
Industrial | −88.62 | - | 978.77 | - | 890.15 | 25.23 | |
Total | −178.06 | 166.98 | 1977.59 | - | 1966.51 | 15.35 | |
Gasoline | Residential | −106.95 | 128.77 | 833.31 | - | 855.13 | 23.62 |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Total | −106.95 | 128.77 | 833.31 | - | 855.13 | 23.62 | |
Total | Residential | −384.99 | −13.82 | 4290.06 | −3891.26 | 0 | 0 |
Industrial | −204.59 | - | 2715.46 | −2510.87 | 0 | 0 | |
Total | −589.58 | −13.82 | 7005.53 | −6402.13 | 0 | 0 |
Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | −26.61% | −11.18% | 5.40% | 2.26% | 3.22% |
Natural gas | 8.78% | 9.03% | −2.12% | −2.18% | −2.17% |
Diesel | 11.49% | 11.49% | −2.31% | −2.31% | −2.31% |
Gasoline | 8.28% | - | −2.09% | - | −2.09% |
Excise Tax | VAT | CO2 Tax | NOx/SO2 Tax | Renewables | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | −162.16 | −677.28 | 197.91 | 108.68 | −3891.26 | −4424.10 | −58.41 |
Industrial | −89.39 | - | 444.00 | 243.82 | −2510.87 | −1912.43 | −56.97 | |
Total | −251.54 | −677.28 | 641.91 | 352.50 | −6402.13 | −6336.54 | −57.97 | |
Natural gas | Residential | −2.84 | 51.43 | 305.22 | 20.14 | - | 373.95 | 40.26 |
Industrial | −2.28 | - | 1031.18 | 68.03 | - | 1096.93 | 1051.49 | |
Total | −5.12 | 51.43 | 1336.41 | 88.17 | - | 1470.88 | 142.37 | |
Diesel | Residential | −145.07 | 267.79 | 1251.65 | 353.90 | - | 1728.27 | 18.62 |
Industrial | −81.50 | - | 703.18 | 198.82 | - | 820.51 | 23.26 | |
Total | −226.57 | 267.79 | 1954.83 | 552.72 | - | 2548.78 | 19.90 | |
Gasoline | Residential | −52.96 | 65.70 | 352.95 | 68.92 | - | 434.61 | 12.00 |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Total | −52.96 | 65.70 | 352.95 | 68.92 | - | 434.61 | 12.00 | |
Total | Residential | −363.03 | −292.36 | 2107.73 | 551.64 | −3891.26 | −1887.27 | −8.82 |
Industrial | −173.16 | - | 2178.37 | 510.67 | −2510.87 | 5.01 | 0.07 | |
Total | −536.19 | −292.36 | 4286.10 | 1062.32 | −6402.13 | −1882.27 | −6.63 |
Product | Price Variation | Consumption Variation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Residential | Industrial | Residential | Industrial | Total | |
Electricity | −25.62% | −9.30% | 5.20% | 1.89% | 2.89% |
Natural gas | 11.60% | 11.92% | −2.81% | −2.88% | −2.87% |
Diesel | 15.18% | 15.18% | −3.05% | −3.05% | −3.05% |
Gasoline | 10.94% | - | −2.77% | - | −2.77% |
Excise Tax | VAT | CO2 Tax | NOx/SO2 Tax | Renewables | Total | Total (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electricity | Residential | −158.31 | −650.53 | 292.59 | 156.95 | −3891.26 | −4250.56 | −56.12 |
Industrial | −81.32 | - | 655.21 | 351.47 | −2510.87 | −1585.51 | −47.23 | |
Total | −239.63 | −650.53 | 947.80 | 508.42 | −6402.13 | −5836.07 | −53.39 | |
Natural gas | Residential | −3.75 | 67.30 | 400.33 | 26.41 | - | 490.29 | 52.79 |
Industrial | −3.01 | - | 1352.24 | 89.21 | - | 1438.44 | 1378.84 | |
Total | −6.76 | 67.30 | 1752.57 | 115.62 | - | 1928.73 | 186.69 | |
Diesel | Residential | −191.61 | 350.32 | 1640.64 | 463.89 | - | 2263.25 | 24.38 |
Industrial | −107.65 | - | 921.72 | 260.61 | - | 1074.69 | 30.46 | |
Total | −299.25 | 350.32 | 2562.37 | 724.50 | - | 3337.94 | 26.06 | |
Gasoline | Residential | −69.95 | 85.97 | 462.97 | 90.41 | - | 569.41 | 15.73 |
Industrial | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Total | −69.95 | 85.97 | 462.97 | 90.41 | - | 569.41 | 15.73 | |
Total | Residential | −423.62 | −146.93 | 2796.54 | 737.66 | −3891.26 | −927.62 | −4.33 |
Industrial | −191.97 | - | 2929.17 | 701.29 | −2510.87 | 927.62 | 13.27 | |
Total | −615.60 | −146.93 | 5725.71 | 1438.95 | −6402.13 | 0 | 0 |
Reform | Income | Energy Demand | Emissions CO2 | Distributive Impact (Deciles) | Gini Index |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1A | 5.97% | −0.65% | −0.55% | −0.041% (first) | −0.01% |
−0.068% (tenth) | |||||
−0.071% (average) | |||||
1B | 56.25% | −4.18% | −4.59% | −1.107% (first) | 0.18% |
−0.899% (tenth) | |||||
−1.139% (average) | |||||
2A | 6.11% | −0.58% | −0.53% | −0.064% (first) | −0.01% |
−0.119% (tenth) | |||||
−0.122% (average) | |||||
2B | 19.18% | −1.77% | −1.67% | −0.232% (first) | −0.01% |
−0.338% (tenth) | |||||
−0.365% (average) | |||||
3A | 0.00% | −0.91% | −0.54% | 0.540% (first) | −0.26% |
−0.166% (tenth) | |||||
0.046% (average) | |||||
3B | 0.00% | −0.87% | −0.51% | 0.452% (first) | −0.23% |
−0.199% (tenth) | |||||
−0.016% (average | |||||
4A | −6.63% | −0.61% | −0.21% | 0.918% (first) | −0.36% |
0.001% (tenth) | |||||
0.319% (average) | |||||
4B | 0.00% | −1.21% | −0.79% | 0.829% (first) | −0.36% |
−0.108% (tenth) | |||||
0.196% (average) |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Labandeira, X.; Labeaga, J.M.; López-Otero, X. New Green Tax Reforms: Ex-Ante Assessments for Spain. Sustainability 2019, 11, 5640. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205640
Labandeira X, Labeaga JM, López-Otero X. New Green Tax Reforms: Ex-Ante Assessments for Spain. Sustainability. 2019; 11(20):5640. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205640
Chicago/Turabian StyleLabandeira, Xavier, José M. Labeaga, and Xiral López-Otero. 2019. "New Green Tax Reforms: Ex-Ante Assessments for Spain" Sustainability 11, no. 20: 5640. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205640