The Technical Efficiency of French Regional Airports and Low-Cost Carrier Terminals
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Review of French Airports and Privatization
3. Research Methodology
3.1. Data Envelopment Analysis-Principal Component Analysis (DEA-PCA) and Malmquist Productivity Index
3.2. DEA-PCA and Malmquist Productivity Index Results
4. Interpretation and Implications: Focusing on Low-Cost Carriers (LCCs) and LCC-Dedicated Terminals (LCCTs)
4.1. Interpretation of Pooled Technical Efficiency (TE) Results
4.2. LCCT and French Regional Airports
4.3. Viability of Regional Airports in France
5. Conclusions, Limitations, and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Airports | Number | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Paris airports | CDG Charles-de-Gaulle | ORY Orly | 2 | |
Large | BOD Bordeaux; BSL Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg; LYS Lyon; MPL Montpellier; MRS Marseille | NCE Nice; NTE Nantes; SXB Strasbourg; TLS Toulouse | 9 | |
Dom-Tom | CAY Cayenne; DZA Mayotte-Dzaoudzi-Pamandzi; FDF Martinique; NOU Nouméa | PPT Tahiti; PTP Pointe-à-Pitre; RUN La Réunion | 7 | |
Middle | AJA Ajaccio; BES Brest; BIA Bastia; BIQ Biarritz; BVA Beauvais | CGF Carcasonne; FSC Figari; LDS Tarbes; LIL Lille; PGF Peripignan | PUF Pau; RNS Rennes; TLN Toulon | 13 |
Small | BZR Beziers; CFE Clermont-Ferrand; CFR Caen; CLY Calvi; CMF Chambery; DOL Deauville | EGC Bergerac; ETZ Metz; FNI Nimes; GNB Grenoble; LIG Limoges; LRH La Rochelle | LRT Lorient; PIS Poitiers; RDZ Rodez; UIP Quimper; XCR Chalons | 17 |
Others | AGF Agen; ANE Angers; ANG Angouleme; AUF Auxerre; AUR Aurillac; AVN Avignon; BOU Bourges; BVE Brive; BYF Albert; CER Cherbourg; CET Cholet; CHR Chateauroux; CMR Colmar; CQF Calais; CTT Le Castelet; CVH Courchevel; DCM Castres; DIJ Dijon | DLE Dole; DNR Dinard; EBU Saint-Etienne; ENC Nancy; EPL Epinal; GAT Gap; IDY Ile-d’yeu; LAI Lannion; LEH Le Havre; LFEA Belle-Ile; LFEC Ouessant; LME Le Mans; LPY Le Puy; LTQ Le Touquet; LTT La Mole; LVA Laval; NCE (*) Port Grimaud; NCY Annecy | NIT Niort; NVS Nevers; ORE Orleans; PGX Perigueux; QAM Amiens; QYR Troyes; RHE Reims; RNE Roanne; SBK Sanit-Brieuc; SYT Saint-Yan; TUF Tours; URO Rouen; VAF Valence; VNE Vannes; XCZ Charleville; XMF Montbeliard; XVS Valaciennes | 53 |
Total number of airports | 101 99 (**) |
Category | Avg WLU per Airport * | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Large | 539,901 (100%) | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
DOM-TOM | 141,371 (26.2% **) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 |
Middle | 86,968 (16.1% **) | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 9 | 11 |
Small | 20,741 (3.8% **) | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 11 | 15 |
Others | 1595 (0.3% **) | 49 | 44 | 39 | 44 | 28 | 17 | 18 |
Total (535) | 94,261 | 93 | 88 | 83 | 88 | 70 | 53 | 60 |
Valid data (433, 81%) | 41 (44.1%) | 66 (75.0%) | 70 (84.3%) | 74 (84.1%) | 69 (98.6%) | 53 (100%) | 60 (100%) |
Region | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | CAGR (*) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regional airports | 64,808,646 | 39.6% | 68,783,291 | 41.0% | 71,049,915 | 41.3% | 72,108,646 | 41.1% | 3.6% |
Large | 48,032,204 | 29.4% (74.1%) | 51,398,907 | 30.6% (74.7%) | |||||
Paris airports | 88,109,627 | 53.9% | 88,788,465 | 52.9% | 90,327,071 | 52.6% | 92,676,342 | 52.8% | 1.7% |
Sub-total | 152,918,273 | 93.5% | 157,526,756 | 93.8% | 161,376,986 | 93.9% | 164,784,988 | 94.0% | 2.5% |
DOM-TOM | 10,677,378 | 6.5% | 10,426,005 | 6.2% | 10,482,787 | 6.1% | 10,596,227 | 6.0% | −0.3% |
Total | 163,595,651 | 100% | 167,953,254 | 100% | 171,859,773 | 100% | 175,381,215 | 100.0% | 2.3% |
In/Out | Variables | Obs. | Min. | Max. | Average | Std. Dev. | CV |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Input variables | A. # of employees | 409 | 1 | 573 | 98 | 112 | 1.14 |
B. Labor cost (k€) | 397 | 2 | 84,212 | 7328 | 14,594 | 1.99 | |
C. Debt (k€) | 241 | 1 | 175,802 | 22,504 | 40,708 | 1.81 | |
D. Subsidization (k€) | 183 | 1 | 18,936 | 1381 | 2975 | 2.15 | |
E. Operational cost (k€) | 321 | 283 | 183,336 | 18,685 | 31,494 | 1.69 | |
Output variables | 1. Passenger | 534 | 133 | 11,197,734 | 891,911 | 1,901,211 | 2.13 |
2. Cargo (ton) | 134 | 2 | 142,253 | 20,909 | 25,913 | 1.24 | |
3. Movement | 527 | 41 | 184,901 | 13,634 | 28,472 | 2.09 | |
4. Revenue (k€) | 322 | 76 | 210,383 | 21,049 | 36,592 | 1.74 | |
5. Net Profit (%) | 321 | −73.9% | 42.1% | 1.4% | 10.8% | 7.91 |
Input Variables | Output Variables | # of Observation/Total | Efficiency of the Nice (NCE) Airport (2012) |
---|---|---|---|
A, B, C, D, E | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 | 154/535 | 0.9227/1.0000/1.0000; CCR_Out/BCC_Out/BCC_In |
A, D, E | 1, 2, 3 | 306/535 | 0.8427/1.0000/1.0000 |
A | 3 | 407/535 | 0.6192/N/A/0.8153 |
B | 3 | 396/535 | 0.0063 (CCR_In)/N/A/0.5258 |
… | … | … | … |
25 different combinations of variables | 433/535 | 0.4934/1.0000/0.9555 |
Airport Size | N | Mean | Std. Dev | Std. Error | 95% Confidence Interval for Mean | Min | Max | Mean Difference (Post Hoc Test) | ANOVA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | L | D | M | S | ||||||||
Large (L) | 63 | 0.7012 | 0.122 | 0.015 | 0.67 | 0.73 | 0.3449 | 0.8737 | F-value 68.567 ** | ||||
Dom-Tom (D) | 44 | 0.4902 | 0.167 | 0.025 | 0.44 | 0.54 | 0.1349 | 0.8033 | 0.2111 ** | ||||
Middle (M) | 88 | 0.4993 | 0.150 | 0.016 | 0.47 | 0.53 | 0.1600 | 0.8020 | 0.2019 ** | −0.0091 | |||
Small (S) | 94 | 0.3870 | 0.187 | 0.019 | 0.35 | 0.43 | 0.0074 | 0.7877 | 0.3142 ** | 0.1031 * | 0.1122 ** | ||
Others | 136 | 0.3156 | 0.161 | 0.014 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 0.0326 | 0.7850 | 0.3857 ** | 0.1746 ** | 0.1837 ** | 0.0714 * | |
Total | 425 | 0.4447 | 0.206 | 0.010 | 0.43 | 0.46 | 0.0074 | 0.8737 |
Airports | TFPC (M) | PEC | SEC | TC | Observation Years |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NCE | 0.9865 | 1.0503 | 0.9470 | 0.9919 | 2008–12 |
LYS | 0.9794 | 1.0039 | 0.9878 | 0.9876 | 2008–12 |
MRS | 1.0215 | 1.0612 | 0.9503 | 1.0128 | 2008–12 |
TLS | 1.4251 | 1.1213 | 1.0276 | 1.2368 | 2008–12 |
BSL | 1.2278 | 1.1307 | 0.9601 | 1.1310 | 2008–12 |
BOD | 1.2533 | 1.0738 | 1.0193 | 1.1451 | 2008–12 |
NTE | 1.0600 | 1.0161 | 1.0074 | 1.0356 | 2008–12 |
MPL | 0.8620 | 0.9842 | 0.9574 | 0.9147 | 2008–12 |
SXB | 1.3852 | 1.0205 | 1.1163 | 1.2159 | 2008–12 |
Geometric Mean of Large airports | 1.1185 | 1.0502 | 0.9958 | 1.0695 | |
RUN | 0.6774 | 0.8897 | 0.9618 | 0.7916 | 2008–12 |
PTP | 0.6053 | 0.8425 | 0.9710 | 0.7399 | 2008–12 |
PPT | 0.7329 | 0.8307 | 1.0630 | 0.8299 | 2008–12 |
FDF | 0.9304 | 0.9882 | 0.9831 | 0.9576 | 2008–12 |
NOU | 1.9886 | 0.9287 | 1.4175 | 1.5105 | 2008–12 |
CAY | 0.9327 | 1.0376 | 0.9373 | 0.9591 | 2008–12 |
DZA | 0.0976 | 0.4249 | 0.9279 | 0.2475 | 2011–12 |
AJA | 1.3731 | 0.9822 | 0.9831 | 1.2095 | 2008–12 |
LIL | 1.2434 | 1.1098 | 1.0424 | 1.1397 | 2008–12 |
BIQ | 1.7933 | 1.2118 | 0.9871 | 1.4197 | 2008–12 |
BIA | 0.7900 | 0.9220 | 1.0012 | 0.8681 | 2008–12 |
BES | 3.0335 | 1.5568 | 0.9332 | 1.9461 | 2008–12 |
PUF | 0.2526 | 0.6180 | 1.0174 | 0.4380 | 2008–12 |
LDE | 0.6263 | 0.8151 | 1.2122 | 0.7552 | 2008–12 |
FSC | 3.1078 | 1.2984 | 0.9050 | 1.9746 | 2008–12 |
TLN | 0.4550 | 0.8063 | 1.0349 | 0.6234 | 2008–10, 12 |
RNS | 0.8288 | 0.8963 | 0.6856 | 0.8934 | 2008–10, 12 |
BVA | 1.3225 | 1.6310 | 0.9895 | 1.1826 | 2008–10, 12 |
PGF | 0.2296 | 0.5610 | 0.9826 | 0.4136 | 2008–10 |
CCF | 0.9406 | 0.9930 | 1.0046 | 0.9639 | 2008–09 |
Geometric Mean of Middle and Dom-TOM airports | 0.8216 | 0.9239 | 0.9936 | 0.888 | |
CFE | 7.4855 | 2.9384 | 0.7613 | 3.3460 | 2008–10, 12 |
GNB | 0.2476 | 0.6831 | 0.8375 | 0.4327 | 2008–12 |
LIG | 0.2130 | 0.6676 | 0.8069 | 0.3954 | 2008–10, 12 |
CLY | 0.7921 | 0.9002 | 1.0119 | 0.8695 | 2008–11 |
ETZ | 0.0907 | 0.4682 | 0.8178 | 0.2369 | 2008–10, 12 |
EGC | 2.3475 | 1.3519 | 1.0406 | 1.6686 | 2008–12 |
CMF | 14.0842 | 1.6460 | 1.7501 | 4.8892 | 2008–12 |
LRH | 3.5734 | 1.4480 | 1.1494 | 2.1471 | 2008–12 |
BZR | 3.0118 | 1.5464 | 1.0051 | 1.9377 | 2008–12 |
FNI | 2.7877 | 1.2808 | 1.1765 | 1.8499 | 2008–10 |
LRT | 0.7459 | 0.9213 | 0.9653 | 0.8387 | 2008–12 |
RDZ | 0.2109 | 0.6133 | 0.8748 | 0.3930 | 2008–12 |
DOL | 4.8213 | 1.9716 | 0.9516 | 2.5698 | 2008–12 |
UIP | 0.2371 | 0.5804 | 0.9689 | 0.4217 | 2008–12 |
CFR | 0.8725 | 0.8958 | 1.0570 | 0.9214 | 2008–12 |
PIS | 10.1827 | 2.0123 | 1.2574 | 4.0245 | 2008–12 |
XCR | 151.3291 | 5.5258 | 1.3476 | 20.3214 | 2009–12 |
Geometric Mean of Small airports (): excluding extreme outliers value exceed 10 of TFPC. | 1.6805 (0.9205) | 1.2032 (1.0171) | 1.0229 (0.9511) | 1.3654 (0.9515) | - |
DIJ | 6.5312 | 1.8291 | 1.1582 | 3.0831 | 2009–12 |
AGF | 2.7897 | 1.4156 | 1.0649 | 1.8507 | 2008–12 |
URO | 0.3739 | 1.0796 | 0.6249 | 0.5542 | 2009, 12 |
ENC | 0.1499 | 0.6143 | 0.7620 | 0.3203 | 2008–10, 12 |
AUR | 1.2258 | 1.0363 | 1.0468 | 1.1299 | 2008–12 |
CMR | 0.3693 | 0.6116 | 1.0976 | 0.5500 | 2008–10, 12 |
AUF | 0.3727 | 0.6943 | 0.9705 | 0.5531 | 2008–10, 12 |
LME | 0.5163 | 0.7948 | 0.9658 | 0.6726 | 2008–12 |
PGX | 3.6793 | 1.2622 | 1.3341 | 2.1850 | 2008–12 |
AVN | 0.4263 | 0.7214 | 0.9857 | 0.5996 | 2009–10, 12 |
CHR | 0.8175 | 0.9196 | 1.0032 | 0.8861 | 2009–12 |
XVS | 0.1314 | 0.5883 | 0.7550 | 0.2960 | 2008–12 |
LTQ | 0.5861 | 0.9941 | 0.8123 | 0.7257 | 2009–12 |
DCM | 0.2397 | 0.7047 | 0.8014 | 0.4244 | 2008–10, 12 |
VAF | 0.0732 | 0.3528 | 0.9959 | 0.2082 | 2008–12 |
ANG | 0.3243 | 1.3586 | 0.4691 | 0.5088 | 2008–12 |
VNE | 25.0322 | 1.8696 | 1.9394 | 6.9040 | 2010, 12 |
LEH | 1.2517 | 0.9358 | 1.1690 | 1.1442 | 2008, 10–11 |
be | 0.1537 | 0.5245 | 0.9014 | 0.3251 | 2008–11 |
LPY | 2.0984 | 1.4487 | 0.9285 | 1.5600 | 2008–11 |
CVF | 1.7257 | 1.0578 | 1.1760 | 1.3873 | 2010–11 |
DLE | 1.1330 | 0.9980 | 1.0533 | 1.0778 | 2008–11 |
XMF | 1.1642 | 1.0340 | 1.0278 | 1.0955 | 2008–11 |
DNR | 0.1285 | 0.4756 | 0.9252 | 0.2920 | 2008–10 |
NCY | 0.8341 | 0.9433 | 0.9859 | 0.8969 | 2008–10 |
ANE | 0.4334 | 1.1142 | 0.6424 | 0.6055 | 2008–10 |
QYR | 0.8257 | 1.1769 | 0.7870 | 0.8914 | 2008–10 |
BOU | 24.3695 | 2.2391 | 1.6020 | 6.7937 | 2008–09 |
NVS | 0.8857 | 1.5439 | 0.6170 | 0.9298 | 2008–09 |
ORE | 19.6040 | 9.6927 | 0.3392 | 5.9622 | 2008–09 |
EBU | 14.5241 | 2.1558 | 1.3528 | 4.9803 | 2008–09 |
Geometric Mean of Other airports (): excluding extreme outliers value exceed 10 of TFPC | 0.9588 (0.6094) | 1.0602 (0.9062) | 0.9274 (0.9052) | 0.9750 (0.7429) | - |
All French airports (): excluding extreme outliers value exceed 10 of TFPC. | 1.0345 (0.7799) | 1.0223 (0.9500) | 0.9916 (0.9510) | 1.0206 (0.8614) | 2008–12 |
1.2599 | 1.0731 | 1.0221 | 1.1487 | 2011–12 | |
0.9148 | 0.9849 | 0.9798 | 0.9479 | 2010–11 | |
0.9965 | 1.0043 | 0.9944 | 0.9979 | 2009–10 | |
7.0720 | 1.2080 | 1.8103 | 3.2339 | 2008–09 |
Dependent Variable | DEA-PCA | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Coeff. | Std. Coeff. | Std. Error | VIF | t-Value | Bootstrap (1) Sig. |
Constant | 3.005 | 0.258 | 11.661 | 0.000 ** | ||
ln_WLU_Emp | −0.328 | −0.556 | 0.037 | 2.030 | −8.859 ** | 0.000 ** |
ln_Op_WLU | 0.368 | 0.301 | 0.071 | 1.746 | 5.177 ** | 0.008 * |
ln_A_NA | 0.093 | 0.112 | 0.039 | 1.124 | 2.395 * | 0.062 |
ln_LCC | 0.038 | 0.067 | 0.027 | 1.179 | 1.411 | 0.196 |
LCCT | −0.178 | −0.101 | 0.084 | 1.190 | −2.105 * | 0.000 ** |
Indices | Category | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | Average/Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Operational Indices | WLU/Emp | - | 609 | 639 | 631 | 660 | 743 | 775 | 702 |
Large | - | 1972 | 1801 | 1766 | 1960 | 1944 | 2066 | 1921 | |
DOM-TOM | - | 863 | 899 | 907 | 926 | 942 | 847 | 891 | |
Middle | - | 773 | 899 | 801 | 810 | 846 | 905 | 829 | |
Small | - | 480 | 449 | 487 | 451 | 530 | 520 | 499 | |
Others | - | 99 | 115 | 110 | 134 | 97 | 78 | 106 | |
Op/WLU | - | - | 1.4061 | 2.1434 | 2.0737 | 2.0673 | 1,6504 | 1.8629 | |
Large | - | - | 0.1449 | 0.1521 | 0.1457 | 0.1424 | 0.1442 | 0.1459 | |
DOM-TOM | - | - | 0.2177 | 0.2295 | 0.2292 | 0.2222 | 0.2598 | 0.2323 | |
Middle | - | - | 0.1741 | 0.1805 | 0.1826 | 0.1914 | 0.1832 | 0.1816 | |
Small | - | - | 0.2450 | 0.4991 | 0.3058 | 0.3387 | 0.3274 | 0.3441 | |
Others | - | - | 3.3314 | 5.4055 | 4.7875 | 5.9579 | 4.9433 | 4.8174 | |
WLU change (yoy) | - | −10.32% | 7.63% | −16.33% | 0.98% | 6.91% | 1.64% | −2.97% | |
Large | - | 2.99% | −7.44% | −4.39% | 4.33% | 7.82% | 6.15% | 1.42% | |
DOM-TOM | - | 5.52% | 11.50% | −1.80% | 3.70% | 3.46% | −2.38% | 3.07% | |
Middle | - | 5.10% | 8.55% | −5.98% | −3.24% | 1.50% | 5.45% | 1.71% | |
Small | - | −11.75% | 0.87% | −20.63% | −4.11% | 10.63% | 9.95% | −1.27% | |
Others | - | −18.86% | 13.28% | −22.37% | 3.72% | 8.24% | −2.97% | −7.88% | |
Financial Indices | Revenue change (yoy) | - | - | - | −1.79% | 5.86% | 11.34% | 4.32% | 4.62% |
Large | - | - | - | −2.02% | 10.25% | 2.26% | 8.14% | 4.54% | |
DOM-TOM | - | - | - | 5.99% | 0.43% | 11.92% | 15.08% | 8.47% | |
Middle | - | - | - | −4.99% | −0.09% | 4.52% | 11.30% | 1.82% | |
Small | - | - | - | 1.86% | 6.77% | 26.55% | −8.62% | 3.85% | |
Others | - | - | - | −4.40% | 8.21% | 10.64% | 5.94% | 5.71% | |
Net Profit % | - | - | −2.51% | −1.65% | 2.91% | 4.28% | 1.33% | 0.64% | |
Large | - | - | 3.52% | 4.90% | 6.90% | 8.16% | 8.54% | 6.39% | |
DOM-TOM | - | - | 3.92% | 3.81% | 5.19% | 1.68% | −16.66% | −1.24% | |
Middle | - | - | −2.94% | −1.05% | −0.42% | 0.52% | 4.34% | −0.18% | |
Small | - | - | −6.30% | −5.05% | 1.54% | 3.08% | 0.08% | −1.43% | |
Others | - | - | −3.61% | −3.45% | 3.37% | 6.18% | 4.85% | 0.96% | |
A/NA ratio | 4.7473 | 1.5774 | 1.8790 | 2.0012 | 2.0725 | 2.2640 | 1.8367 | 2.27 | |
Large | 1.2601 | 1.2478 | 1.3140 | 1.3563 | 1.3457 | 1.3927 | 1.3736 | 1.33 | |
DOM-TOM | 2.4651 | 2.5064 | 2.8268 | 2.4780 | 2.6037 | 4.5135 | 4.0441 | 3.10 | |
Middle | 3.4188 | 1.5926 | 1.6792 | 1.7018 | 2.0741 | 2.4560 | 2.0788 | 2.13 | |
Small | 4.2344 | 1.9846 | 2.5185 | 2.5089 | 2.1215 | 1.7798 | 1.9646 | 2.45 | |
Others | 9.7354 | 1.3157 | 1.6286 | 1.9826 | 2.1654 | 1.9821 | 1.0780 | 2.39 | |
Subsidization (k€) | 42,840 | 19,767 | 22,563 | 44,215 | 44,569 | 27,411 | 51,329 | 252,694 (100%) | |
Large | 14,174 | 2513 | 9310 | 4934 | 2,274 | 6071 | 20,593 | 59,869 (23.7%) | |
DOM-TOM | 22,949 | 15,391 | 8808 | 15,301 | 15,975 | 4947 | 18,534 | 101,905 (40.3%) | |
Middle | 2354 | 1730 | 2947 | 20,815 | 5915 | 1843 | 4918 | 40,522 (16.0%) | |
Small | 3363 | 0 | 567 | 269 | 33 | 833 | 5243 | 10,567 (4.2%) | |
Others | 0 | 133 | 931 | 2896 | 20,372 | 13,717 | 2041 | 39,831 (13.8%) | |
Subsidization/WLU (€) | 6.22 | 2.73 | 3.12 | 6.34 | 6.25 | 3.91 | 6.45 | 5.01 | |
Large | 3.04 | 0.51 | 1.98 | 1.08 | 0.48 | 1.20 | 3.81 | 1.76 | |
DOM-TOM | 29.18 | 18.66 | 9.74 | 17.51 | 17.60 | 5.07 | 19.58 | 16.38 | |
Middle | 2.26 | 1.55 | 2.41 | 17.46 | 5.10 | 2.48 | 3.90 | 5.24 | |
Small | 10.45 | 0.00 | 1.71 | 0.90 | 0.12 | 4.13 | 16.27 | 5.09 | |
Others | 0.00 | 1.89 | 13.85 | 45.88 | 280.74 | 568.52 | 105.13 | 104.46 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Hong, S.-J.; Jeon, M. The Technical Efficiency of French Regional Airports and Low-Cost Carrier Terminals. Sustainability 2019, 11, 5107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11185107
Hong S-J, Jeon M. The Technical Efficiency of French Regional Airports and Low-Cost Carrier Terminals. Sustainability. 2019; 11(18):5107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11185107
Chicago/Turabian StyleHong, Seock-Jin, and Minjun Jeon. 2019. "The Technical Efficiency of French Regional Airports and Low-Cost Carrier Terminals" Sustainability 11, no. 18: 5107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11185107