1. Introduction
In Europe, there are the “explicit” policies, where innovation is not only acknowledged but also at the very heart of its objectives, and there are “tacit” ones where innovation can be recognized within other general policies. This makes the overall innovation picture highly complex. The data landscape regarding the subject is additionally fragmented, from a temporal as well as from a definition angle. Some areas of data are replicated several times and others are lacking. Additionally, 5–7 years of framework of approaches have been reinforcing these tendencies. In sum, it is quite problematic to bridge the innovation information; even more, when it comes to the agreement about further directions for innovation development in the highly complex EU landscape, as is the case with the Horizon Europe proposal [
1]. For this purpose, this subject needs to be fully understood and afterwards revised.
If Europe aims to be more innovative and achieve overall progress and sustainability, there is a need for analytical tools that enables the assessment of the maturity and structural advancement of innovation ecosystems and their determinants. The first [
2] of these set of articles about the Innovation Ecosystems in the EU, elaborates such a tentative theoretical framework, a model through which the understanding can be grounded.
EU innovation policy is regarded as a cornerstone in the evolution of configuration of innovation ecosystems. Thus, the aim of the present document is to carry on the European policy case study, applying the proposed analytical framework, on the key innovation policy document, i.e., Horizon Europe FP proposal. Firstly, the general history of the innovation policies in the EU and the evolution of the institutional framing is briefly introduced to prepare the background and underpinning for further research, presenting the scenario of the Horizon Europe FP proposal emergence and application. The institutional arrangement is included; nonetheless, only European Union policy centred institutions are disclosed, as they are the ones directly affected. Even if some of them are multilateral in nature, connecting EU governance level, industry (i.e., small and medium enterprises) and academia, the thorough examination of the innovation intermediary institutions is out of scope of the present work. However, this part can be dealt with in a future desirable line of studies, because their density and emergence are pondered as a decisive feature of the structural maturity of innovation ecosystems.
Secondly, the Horizon Europe proposal document is analysed applying the theoretical framework for structural advancement assessment of innovation ecosystems, in this case, their policy determinants. In this way, the main innovation helix actors positioned in Horizon Europe can be disclosed: Government (the European Union level), Academia, Industry (established companies and start-ups), together with Society and Natural Environment which are particularly relevant for socioecological transformation and sustainability. The international articulation of the innovation between the EU and the rest of the world, is taken into account too. The questions such as a climate change cannot be addressed by one country or region only, collaboration and coopetition are indispensable.
From the multilevel innovation process perspective, as this is a general innovation policy strategy evaluation, just general indications are to be found here; they are included mainly in the Industry or business dimension descriptions. Nonetheless, the process viewpoint could be an interesting subject for another study with other base materials to be examined.
The foreseen budget assignments (even if changing slightly during the approval process) are considered a paramount reality check for declarations of intention. Main tacit innovation policies and funding institutions with synergies to Horizon Europe are listed in order to complete the thorough picture.
International tendencies and complementary aspects are also included to provide the reframing and discussion ground for the structural advancement of the innovation ecosystems of EU depicted by its strategic policy.
Through creating and applying a living model of the innovation world which can be constantly interrogated and improved, the authors aim to contribute to the discussion about the European innovation policy evolution including therein the socioecological dimension revision and strategic implementation directions that are essential to reach progress and sustainability.
2. Materials and Methods
The purpose of this work is the qualitative analysis of the innovation policies of the European Union (EU), as a next step after the establishment of a tentative framework for the assessment of the structural advancement of EU innovation ecosystems [
2] (
Figure 1). In particular, the Horizon Europe proposal [
1] is investigated, under the scope of a multilevel innovation process [
3] perspective, but concentrated specifically on the “reframed innovation helix” [
4] actors division and assignment. This is a necessary dimension between the framework building and the assessment of a particular sector of economy, i.e., banking [
5].
The mapping of innovation actors and processes gives a more dynamic and comprehensive approach, providing an understanding of the (eco)system. The systemness is a meaningful topic here, especially from the point of view of evolving character of innovation patterns. A system is more than the sum of its parts, because it counts on the synergies between them. In this sense, it becomes even more imperative to have these parts or, in this case actors, well defined and well-conceived; moreover, their determinants, roles, and potential in the “straightforward” process rules of the innovation game. These actors need to complement, compete, and interact together, thus, allowing for collective intelligence emergence and orchestration [
6] (p.113).
As a result, it can help the adaptation to threats, handling force and mobilizing long-term resources. From the sustainability prospect, different actors (for example, business, the European Commission, universities, social or ecological organizations) are allowed to make claims, resolve conflicts, or demand sacrifices. Shared views of a model, its standards, quality, and purpose, as well as the focus and cultures of learning, are vital.
This model or framework can be defined as an attempt on the agreement of how to define and discover the truth about the innovation ecosystem, how this ecosystem works and what motions are far-reaching, thus is worthy of attention and action. It is also an economizing tool for a strong collective, since the members can think more quickly and efficiently together. This is so because the model is a starting point for individual and collective intelligence. We experience the world through the models, and data and observations (history or evolution paths included) can be refracted only through them. The concept of the innovation applied here is centred on disruptive innovation, corresponding especially to developed economies, its value and impact emphasize society and the natural environment, allowing the socioecological transformation necessary for the achievement of sustainability.
The actors’ definition and its theoretical background is thoroughly described in the proposed framework [
2], applied as a qualitative, analytical tool. Only the main concepts are to be reminded for a better understanding of this paper as an autonomous document of the set, which can be read apart.
The Triple Helix [
7,
8] idea is rooted in the Sabato triangle [
9] concept of a government, industry and science interaction node, corresponding to regulation, production, and knowledge functions for a society living in a particular (natural) environment. In modern times, the society becomes more active. Due to new technologies, social forces display more agency. The natural environment subject, related to climate change and sustainability, stays in need of a new agency as well. Thus, the reframed innovation helix with five dimensions is regarded here as a more reasonable framework for innovation strategy assessment.
The level of evolution of each of the innovation actors is out of the scope of the present document, as it would require more detailed information which cannot be found at the Horizon Europe proposal evaluation stage.
In general, data (even if highly fragmented) and information about innovation in the EU is available and present, e.g., the data about the FPs are accessible almost fully and in real time. The question is to acquire a comprehensive, global but practical knowledge which is not easy to assemble. Two levels of information can be distinguished: Very global and very detailed, while a middle layer is rather lacking in almost every area. The public is, thus, easily prone to manipulation as almost nobody has the ability to fully process the details which can be underpinned directly to the global level, creating the subjective structures to countersign the interests of the proponent and to defend whatever ideologies, sometimes even contradictory ones.
The proposal document of Horizon Europe [
1] studied below is fluctuating, notwithstanding the main lines are maintained, even if slightly reformulated. It should be said that the changes have not affected, so far, the main Horizon Europe proposal document, introduced in a more detailed manner further on. They are being announced somehow seamlessly, without an easily identified notification and the source of changes, by just introducing the new version—first in a mixed way and then the modified one—as if it was always so (see, for instance, the renaming of the first pillar from Open to Excellent Science) [
10,
11,
12].
The global megatrends of social and climate/ecological change are the lighthouse focus of this analysis, providing an overall, comprehensive, cognitive framework, not exclusively detailed but giving relevant insights for action and the orchestration of innovation in order to propel collective intelligence and sustainability.
2.1. Institutional and Regulatory Framing for Innovation Policies in the EU
In this part of the document, the evolution of regulatory and institutional framing for innovation policies in the EU is presented. These materials convey an underpinning for the examination of the Horizon Europe proposal, as it depicts its operational context and impact roots for innovation ecosystems. The basis for the study is provided by the EU treaties analysis from the innovation angle. The main institutions summarized have definition outlines in their website information. It follows with the brief introduction of the overall picture of Framework Programs for Research and Innovation (R&I).
2.1.1. Research and Innovation Policies in EU Treaties
As shown in the
Figure 2, R&I Policy within the European Communities, can originally be found in the Treaty constituting the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) [
13], formally established by the Paris Treaty of 1952 (dates of coming into force) and the creation of CERN—the European Organization of Nuclear Research in 1954, and afterwards the EURATOM (European Atomic Energy Community) Treaty from 1958 [
14] where the Joint Research Centre (JRC) was created, as well as the Council Resolution from 1974 [
15] on “the coordination of National policies and the definition of actions of community interest in the field of science and technology”.
In the 1983, the ESPRIT Programme [
16] was introduced with the “consortium” only 50% support by the EU founding (significant to innovation process from the multilateral agreements angle, i.e., requiring different actors’ interaction) and inclusion of EFTA countries; in the next year, it was followed by the first Framework Programme (FP) 1884–1987. Already since 1987, with the Single European Act [
17], science became an EU competence and it gave the research and technological development policy a new and explicit basis founded on the concept of "Framework Programs" for five-year periods. The Maastricht Treaty from 1993 [
18] introduced the co-decision procedure of the Council and Parliament for their approval and redefined the objective of the Community Research, Technology and Development (RTD) policy.
After the Treaty of Amsterdam, which entered into force in 1999 [
19], the unanimity condition of the Council decisions was replaced with the vote by qualified majority for the approval of co-decisions in the FP.
The new and current Treaty of the European Union, signed in Lisbon and in force since 2009 [
20], devotes several articles to R&D policy, replacing the ones of the Treaty of Amsterdam. The focus is on coordination and rules of the policy as well as the European Space Policy. In 2012, the Green Paper (state of the Innovation Union) [
21] on Common Strategic Framework was published, followed in the next year by the communication for international cooperation in this field.
2.1.2. European Framework Programmes for R&I
In the history of the EU, seven Framework Programmes have already been implemented. The current one under implementation, named Horizon 2020, is claimed to be the biggest R&I funding program in the world; it takes up about 8 per cent of the European Commission budget, and about the same share of total government R&D spending across the EU.
The forthcoming 9th FP for 2021-2027 was proposed in 2018 and is called Horizon Europe. It is based on the Treaty of the Functioning of the EU (TFEU), titled ‘Industry’ and ‘Research and technological development and space’ (Articles 173, 182, 183, and 188) [
22]. The Euratom research and training programme is based on Article 7 of the Euratom Treaty [
14]. Horizon Europe relies on subsidiarity and is a shared (parallel) competence of the EU (Article 4(3) TFEU). In the following sections, the 9th FP will be thoroughly described and analysed from perspective of the innovation ecosystem, especially the actors’ perspectives.
In general, none of the FPs were a revolution but rather an evolution, presenting a revamped structure, covering new challenges along with striving for simplicity.
2.1.3. EU Research and Innovation Entities
Even if there has been an effort to create the framework for common European Research and Innovation Policy, at the institutional level, the corresponding R&I entities are not clearly distinguished.
Inside the troika of EU institutional pillars (in general shown in the
Appendix A and innovation in the
Figure 3), i.e., the European Commission, the EU Council and the EU Parliament, this policy has been put together with other wide areas. Inside the European Commission it is DG GROW—the Internal Market, the Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs. For the European Parliament, there is ITRE—the Committee for Industry, Research and Energy; as well a Panel for the Future of Technology and Science (STOA) launched in 1987, which not only conducts Technology Assessment and Scientific Foresight projects and organises events, but also recently started running the European Science Media Hub (ESMH) which aims at promoting the relations between Parliament, scientists, media and citizens. Inside the Council of the EU, we have COMPET—the Competitiveness Council, which covers the policies like internal market, industry, research and innovation as well as space.
Below, in the
Figure 4, the main EU R&I entities are presented. These are the main ones from: The historical viewpoint, their global scope and their consideration at the EU and FP level. Joint Research Disruptive Initiative (JEDI) and European Science Foundation (ESF) are interesting examples of initiatives launched outside of the EU main policy stream.
The JRC is centred on the scientific advice provided to policy makers. Together with the Policy departments of the European Commission, it operates 6 knowledge centres for: Food Fraud and Quality, Territorial Policies, Migration and Demography, Disaster Risk Management, Bioeconomy and Global Food Security. It should be said that the JRC pillars of operations are much larger in extent: A fairer and more competitive economy, the digital transformation, a Union that protects and towards a sustainable Europe. In Horizon Europe, it is foreseen to play a strong role in Pillar II. JRC has recently been recalibrating its image towards the citizens and customer service.
The ERAB together with the European Commission has been promoting Europe as an open space for knowledge and growth. It includes experts from academia, industry, and civil society. It was constituted in 2008, replacing the 2001–2007 functioning European Research Advisory Board.
The ERC and its Executive Agency (ERCEA) were funded in 2007 together with the 7th FP. It manages the Horizon Programmes and executes and implements calls for proposals for funding. It aims at supporting frontier research on the basis of scientific excellence and has currently seven working groups. Gender balance, open access, innovation and relations with Industry, widening European and strengthening international participation, key performance indicators (KPIs), and science behind the projects.
Similarly, to ERC, REA was funded in 2007 to help the management of the 7th FP (different programmes). It supports various DGs—Directorate-Generals of the European Commission.
The European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST), founded in 1971, is an intergovernmental framework for international cooperation forming pan-European research networks among nationally funded research. It has 38 states and one cooperating member. In 2013, the COST Association was established by its members.
The ESF was set up in 1974 in Strasbourg and, at the beginning, concentrated on pan-European funding (competence of the European Commission). It was discontinued in 2014 and is currently providing scientific services such as peer reviews. In 2011, it created Science Europe to promote its interests in Brussels and strengthen ERA. In 2017, Science Connect was created for the support of scientific decision-making.
The EIT, created in 2008, helps business, education and research besides public authorities (the so-called “knowledge triangle”) from different levels to join forces through KICs—Knowledge and Innovation Communities—and become international consortia. Their aim is in general to advance knowledge and innovation in critical fields, but, in particular, it is to develop new innovative products and services, start up the companies, and train the new generation of entrepreneurs. It is considered a first stage towards a knowledge economy. The EIT operations from 2014 are defined by its Strategic Innovation Agenda (SIA).
The EIC is a reinforcement of ERC, currently being launched. It aims to bring together innovators, small companies and scientists and creates a one-stop shop to bring the ideas from laboratories into the market. It will have two funding instruments: Pathfinder and Accelerator, correspondingly for early stage and for development and market deployment.
Recently being established, and mirroring the US DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), is JEDI, called a European Moonshot factory. It is to be controlled by participating governments supported by the Commission, rather than driven and run by the Commission. The legal distinction could make it easier for the agency to perform military research, barred from Horizon 2020, invite UK participation post-Brexit, or the funding of “European universities”, formed by creating networks of existing universities that offer new EU-wide diplomas.
JEDI aims at bringing a breakthrough technology with speed, higher expectations, and massive risk taking. Its four big missions are: Decarbonizing the world, securing a human-centric digital transition, massively improving healthcare and exploring new frontiers.
EUREKA platform was funded in 1985 and it is an intergovernmental distributed network (involving EU) supporting the R&D&I cooperation, promoting and supporting market-oriented projects in this area. It helps to get the financing for the companies involved in its projects through its “quality seal”. It looks for synergies with FPs and ERA.
Created in 2014 (in replacement of the Executive Agency for Competitiveness and Innovation) by the European Commission for the fields of SME support and innovation, environment, climate action, energy, and maritime affairs. It has been set-up to manage on behalf of EC several EU programmes.
2.2. Horizon Europe Proposal
The Horizon Europe proposal [
1] is the main material of the research in this paper. In this part of the document, the basic notions of the Horizon Europe FP are presented, together with the pack of other proposal documents regarding it. The three-pillar structure is briefly introduced, followed by the corresponding budgetary disposal.
Other policies and financing sources with synergies and tacit innovation content are stated as well.
2.2.1. Horizon Europe Basis and Package
For Horizon Europe, the “Lamy” High Level Group conclusions on maximising the impact of EU R&I Programmes [
23] were taken into account and enforced by its mission-oriented proposal. Five key criteria were established to select them [
24]. In 2017, the EU Innovation Council was set up following the recommendations of High Level Group of Innovators [
25]. Another High Level-Strategy Group [
26] on industrial technology proposed the redefinition of KETs (Key Enabling Technologies).
Horizon Europe targets are based mainly on the Agenda for Jobs, Growth, Fairness and Democratic Change and global policy priorities (the Sustainable Development Goals) [
27]; a target of investing 3% of the Union’s GDP on research and development and on the Communication “A renewed European agenda for Research and Innovation—Europe’s chance to shape its future” [
27]. Besides, it was previously agreed in the Rome Declaration of 25 March 2017 [
28].
The Horizon Europe package [
1] consists of proposals for:
A Framework Programme for Research and Innovation entitled “Horizon Europe”, including laying down its rules for participation and dissemination (as per the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union – ‘TFEU’), a specific programme to implement “Horizon Europe” (‘TFEU’),
A Research and Training Programme under the Euratom Treaty complementing Horizon Europe,
associated impact assessment and legal financial statements.
Defence research is apart of the FP and is included in the regulation for the European Defence Fund for this period. The EU Space Program is envisaged to bring synergies.
In Horizon Europe, two current legal acts are merged (the Framework Programme and the Rules for Participation and Dissemination).
2.2.2. Horizon Europe Structure
The three pillars vision of Horizon Europe is based on the previously elaborated vision for the EU Future, i.e., Open Science, Open Innovation and Open to the World [
29]; however, the openness to the world has been reformulated because of struggles against global challenges and industrial competitiveness. Open Science and Open Innovation are to be bottom-up oriented (researcher or innovator driven), while the Global challenges and Industrial Competitiveness are bottom-down (determined by strategically defined EU policy priorities). On the way to approval process, the Open Science pillar was once more renamed Excellent Science. This reflects an internal struggle between bibliometrics excellence and research openness which is not so much concentrated on the bibliographic scores Below, in the
Figure 5, the version based on the current proposal of Horizon Europe [
1] is presented, even if in ancillary EU documents it is modified.
2.2.3. Horizon Europe Budgetary Structure
Budget assignment is presented in general lines in
Figure 6 and, in more detailed manner, in
Figure 7. Numbers are based on the studied Horizon Europe Proposal [
1]. Undeterred by some fluctuations, they were used to maintain the general lines. In the first part of the revision and approval process, the number being proposed were raised, but in the second part, they were lowered, so that at the end they are rather close to original proposal. Clearly the majority of funds is oriented toward Pillar II, while the basis for the pillars—Strengthening of the European Research Area—is only a minor 2% part of it.
The detailed information about the budget disposal is shown in the
Figure 7. Pillar I ERC together with Pillar II Clusters “Climate, Energy and Mobility” and “Digital and Industry”, are summed up by almost 50% of the budget, notwithstanding EIC and Cluster “Food and Natural Resources” which have relevant assignments in the budget as well.
2.2.4. Tacit Innovation Programs and Budgeting with Synergies to Horizon Europe
The programmes with synergies for Horizon Europe include among others [
1] (p. 14):
The common agricultural policy (CAP);
the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF); with its focus on building infrastructure for research and innovation ecosystems, modernisation of public and private sectors, cooperation networks and clusters;
the European Social Fund (ESF+);
the European Space Programme;
the Single Market Programme;
the Programme for Environment and Climate Action (LIFE);
the Connecting Europe Facility (CEF);
the Digital Europe Programme (DEP);
the Erasmus Programme;
the InvestEU Fund;
and the external action instruments (Neighborhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument (NDICI) and Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance (IPA III)).
As presented, the overall innovation picture of the European Union that emerges is highly complex. The common EU budget is dominated by agricultural and regional funding, which together comprise of more than two thirds of the overall budget. Strategic R&I amounts to only 8%.
In order to reinforce the available funds for critical EU policies in the future, there are some proposals of new taxes on the 27 remaining EU countries. These could include an EU-wide carbon-based air flight ticket tax; a carbon border adjustment tax; a fuel tax; a net wealth tax; a financial transactions tax; or a common corporate tax base. The EU does not currently have the power to control national tax rates, and any change to this would require a unanimous vote by all members.
As for the “tacit” innovation budget assignment, the following sources for innovation financing are stated apart from “strategic” financing of Horizon Europe:
ESIF and EFSI, being different and separate mechanisms, are envisaged to be combined together at project or financial instruments level to achieve coordination, synergies and complementarity [
31]. The ESI Funds can be used to support the risk-bearing capacity of an EFSI Investment Platform in the form of a “layered fund”, and leverage other sources of finance, most notably private investors as well as NPBs (National Promotional Banks) [
32].
4. Discussion
Explicit but also tacit European Innovation Policies are gaining momentum. From what can be seen in Horizon Europe, the knowledge triangle [
9] or triple helix [
8] actors are explicitly considered: Government, Academia and Industry, with additional dimensions such as Society and Natural Environment are nonetheless at the tacit level only. The authors consider strong socioecological orientation as a paramount requirement for sustainability. A richer understanding, communication and action is required, based on shared models, codes, roles and rules. In this way, more “we” quality can be reached, making the EU more resilient and thus setbacks and defeats can be coped with more optimally. In a geopolitical scale such as the EU one, there is also a greater risk of delusion and capture by special interests [
6]. Thus, the EU innovation ecosystem should be able to reinvent itself as a system of intelligence, where all actors can act in a more comprehensive and integrated way, having shared views of standards and quality with a shared purpose. A model is a tool for thinking, applying it, actors can better complement, compete and interact with each other. A revision of living innovation ecosystems strategy policy against a comprehensive and dynamic framework is the main contribution of this paper. Observations, inputs and data are refracted through models which are tied to identity and experience of reality.
Generating options and correcting errors of reasoning is vital for strategies. There are several efforts regarding the policies of the EU which are always present. One of them is simplicity. Even if it is one of the main aims, from the outside the policies look ever more complex. The learning can be that this is due to the ever-evolving reality, consequently the casuistic to attain the results becomes more cumbersome. This can override (collective) intelligence if new models are not configured. According to the statements which seem rational, the landscape, even if becoming more complex, is less complicated to manage and to find a way through it for the actors. The administrative burden, related to the auditing and accountability exigencies, now includes several measures to alleviate it. Continuity of the policies can be helpful as well, but it collides with the changes, even if seen as improvements. The grants mechanism is counterproductive in this sense, as by its nature it is a one-shot project, even if extendable, this extension is only palliative. Another aspect is a bottom-up approach calling for high quality expertise of the “bottom” or general citizenry and very good institutional arrangements, thus reinforcing the position of the already strong players. After this thorough research process, the authors have learnt that while more omnipresent is the mantra or repeated are some declarations of intentions, more pervasive can be its effects on status quo maintenance and escalation. For instance, in the 7th Framework Programme that ran from 2007 to 2013, Eastern countries only won four per cent of the total EU research budget. In the current Horizon 2020, that number has improved, but only by 0.4 per cent. The lion’s share of funding continues to go to research institutes and companies in the UK, Germany, France and the Netherlands, an exception being Spain. In the meantime, in Horizon Europe, there is only an expressed concern regarding outermost regions (mainly old colonies and Canary Islands) about improving the participation rates of countries with weaker R&I muscle.
Below we present the main conclusions from the previously exposed results of the analysis of innovation actors.
At the Government level, the innovation approach evolved in the EU towards networks and clusters, mainstreaming innovation into sectorial policies and with the EU itself acting as an innovator [
46]. Apart from the general revision of the policies and their possible impact on the innovation, it tries to be more approachable thanks to EU-declared missions and be closer to citizens and also scientists through a scientific advice mechanism for policy institutions. A serious asset lies in public procurement as when it opens to innovation, it can provide much needed funding. The authors recommend that regulatory sandboxes for innovation and the opening of government data for scientific research and RegTech or LegTech companies are other implicitly far-reaching lines of action.
As for the Academia, data and research processes and the openness of results are burning questions while the exclusiveness of excellence criterion and the current development of the global publishing markets affecting the European ones require closer revision.
Acting at the EU level allows the investment in the segments of R&I which are more difficult to be promoted at other levels, as it is for high risk and long-term venture It can be achieved thanks to “sharing the risk and generating breadth of scope and economies of scale”.
For the Industry, the creation of the EIC should bring reinforcement of the innovation policies and funding. An imperative is here the process approach, supporting the start-up companies in the “valley of death” and scaling-up parts of their development. Collaboration with the big corporations is of relevance, as they can become customers or partners, bridging the financing for innovation. Several initiatives are undertaken to improve Venture Capital participation in European innovation schemes. They fall behind the US standards—these are not developed in the Horizon Europe apart from stating that the blended finance tool is a foreseen step to improve financing on the border of public and private entities.
There is a strong orientation of efforts towards Society, which is to be informed and, what is more, invited through hopefully more interactive and participative processes. Not only information diffusion, but also citizen science or social innovation processes (not so the collaborative economy [
57]) are encouraged, however their real implementation will need further checks. There is a huge space for improvement in the interaction dimension with society, especially when fake news and tribalism are rampant on the social networks, provoking distrust and an easy harbour for populist, and in general, nationalist and anti-European parties.
Natural environment participation in the innovation is limited to the implicit budget assignment commitment of 25%. Other programs especially related to circular economy are crucial, as probably the innovation sector has the best ability to implement them, while starting from scratch.
European Partnerships seem to be the initiatives allowing the joint participation of different actors, including the EU itself, where market, regulatory and policy uptakes are considered jointly with research and innovation.
Anyway, European Union markets are split by comparatively small countries and in some cases by regions, with different regulatory landscapes and rules for functioning, they are fragmented, and it is much more difficult to scale-up companies and overcome the valley of death. Indeed, it is true for talent acquisition across different countries and access to capital. There are very few pan-European VCs [
35]. The difference is much deeper in what is referred to as the innovation approach of culture—attitudes toward challenging the status quo or risk-taking are very different.
None of the new big tech giants are based in the EU, thus it is rather difficult to harness their deep-pockets for innovation. The platform economy has many depredatory results on economic, social and environmental landscapes, thus the first runner advantages can be overturn by a more balanced and sustainable approach. Following the example of China, many of these platforms, which at the beginning would require significant technological investment can be now quite easily made and replaced by pan-European platforms with more ethical aims (i.e., Facebook).
As it can be seen from this study, EU policy regarding innovation is highly complex, many initiatives are fragmented, others are doubled in several lines of action. The nomenclature is changing quite frequently. It is difficult to track the progress of different initiatives or entities on the web, as each of them seems to be created at a specific point of time (during the project execution period) and not updated very frequently, if at all. Only in some recent cases when policy is discontinued, this fact is stated. If not, checks on other sites to guess what has happened are indispensable. Each policy is presented as the most important and comprehensive one. When objectives are not attained, it is not easy to find explanations, but several forecasts and other future dealing elaborations are very popular nowadays, even if it is obvious that their importance is mainly psychological, allowing everybody to believe that we can somehow control the future which by its nature is not controllable [
58].
In the Horizon Europe proposal [
1], the criteria of scientific, social and economic impact pathways are taken into account, but from the authors’ point of view, they are not seen from the actionable perspective of the actors of each dimension. Scientific imprint is measured as the creation and spreading of high-quality new knowledge, skills, technologies and solutions. Societal impact takes on the implementation of the EU policies and supports the uptake of innovative solutions in society and industry. Economic impact relates to fostering of all forms of innovation, market deployment is especially emphasized in this sense. The matching of these criteria to the aims of each of the dimensions is rather difficult. The science orientation towards the diffusion of new technologies or solutions, can be rather oriented to the industry role. Societal impact is based on the assumption that the EU Policies are a direct instrument focused on society. A collectively intelligent, knowledge-based and future (of work) oriented society objective is missing. Economic impact conveys the impression of being related to the number of innovations entering the market. Addressing global challenges is the aim of all these criteria. These same criteria should be matched on the evaluation side of the proposals for project budgeting. Close to real-time monitoring is one of the concerns, with the detailed information about the participants and their applications, but cross-cut multidimensional comprehensive perspective is difficult to find.
A monitoring and evaluation system is crucial for the estimation of the innovation policies and FP impact, R&I is recognized as crucial to fulfil the Union priorities, in particular for jobs and growth, the Digital Single Market, the Energy Union and climate action. The evaluation is to be based on the Interinstitutional Agreement [
34] in order to “strengthen evidence-base for policy-making”. They are useful, not so much because of the allowance for measurements, but for the detection of the improvements’ possibilities. Some, especially in the business-related field claim that “what cannot be measured does not exist” which the authors consider one of big conceptual problems of our times, as imperfect measurements add a certainty to the ignorance and no respect for the unknown seems to be required (unknown “grey point” in this way ceases to exist in the controlled landscape). As Daniel J. Boorstin said: “the greatest obstacle to knowledge is not ignorance, it is the illusion of knowledge”. Connected to the mechanism of psychologic cognitive dissonance, it is a real scour.
The monitoring and benchmarking of innovation across Europe as well as with its main international partners are implemented through tools as the Innovation Union Scoreboard [
59], the Regional Innovation Scoreboard and the Innovation Output Indicator which provide regular updates on the subject. They elaborate several indicators for the innovation assessment. Be that as it may, they are rather static in nature.
The aim of this research is covered by providing the EU innovation policies with historical evolution and structuring. Thus, a dynamic and comprehensive picture of innovation policies in general, and in Horizon Europe in particular, is created, assessed by the actors’ roles in the innovation process and their appropriateness for advancement and sustainability.
This assessment framework can be used for further studies of innovation policies or sectors innovation; for instance, a banking sector case study has already been run [
5]. Nonetheless, it is more oriented towards the developed countries prospect, taking into account good institutional governance and democracy structures. As stated in the original document of innovation model, in the third world countries, some additional factors and processes should be taken into account while others would not be relevant.
Regarding future possible studies, a research of intermediary innovation institutions would be a far-reaching field for research, as there is a foreseen strong correlation between their quality and density on one side and the maturity and structural advancement level of the innovation ecosystems on the other. Notwithstanding, after preliminary revision, the information landscape in this phase is far from a good outlook.
The innovation process perspective is another interesting line for scrutiny, but it would require other materials for innovation strategy examination, Horizon Europe being too general in this aspect.
Probably, from the innovation ecosystems frame of reference, it would be interesting to assess the Future of Work or Sustainability through the lenses of a proposed model, checking different actors and processes for levels of advancement and orientation.