Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Biodiversity Loss
1.2. Loss of Soil Organic Matter
1.3. Water Usage
1.4. Greenhouse Gas Emission
1.5. Nitrogen Cycle
1.6. Phosphorus
2. Agroecology
Agroecology Principles
- Enhance recycling of biomass and optimizing nutrient availability and balancing nutrient flow;
- securing favorable soil conditions for plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter and enhancing soil biotic activity;
- minimizing losses due to flows of solar radiation, air, and water by way of microclimate management, water harvesting, and soil management through increased soil cover;
- species and genetic diversification of the agroecosystem in time and space; and
- enhance beneficial biological interactions and synergisms among agrobiodiversity components, thus resulting in the promotion of key ecological processes and services.
- Optimizing the use of locally available resources by combining the different components of the farm system [...];
- reducing the use of off-farm, external, and non-renewable inputs with the greatest potential to damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers [...];
- relying mainly on resources within the agroecosystem by replacing external inputs with nutrient cycling, better conservation, and an expanded use of local resources;
- working to value and conserve biological diversity, both in the wild and in domesticated landscapes, and making optimal use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal species;
- improving the match between cropping patterns and the productive potential and environmental constraints [...]; and
- taking full advantage of local knowledge and practices, including innovative approaches not yet fully understood by scientists although widely adopted by farmers.
- Step 1:
- Observation of the naturally occurring ecosystem;
- Step 2:
- Development and testing of new techniques in experiments; and
- Step 3:
- Implementation of the new techniques by farmers.
3. Permaculture
3.1. Permaculture Principles
3.1.1. Permaculture Principle I: Observe and Interact
3.1.2. Permaculture Principle II: Catch and Store Energy
3.1.3. Permaculture Principle III: Obtain a Yield
3.1.4. Permaculture principle IV: Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback
3.1.5. Permaculture principle V: Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services
3.1.6. Permaculture Principle VI: Produce No Waste
3.1.7. Permaculture Principle VII: Design from Patterns to Details
3.1.8. Permaculture Principle VIII: Integrate Rather than Segregate
3.1.9. Permaculture Principle IX: Use Small and Slow Solutions
3.1.10. Permaculture Principle X: Use and Value Diversity
3.1.11. Permaculture Principle XI: Use Edges and Value the Marginal
3.1.12. Permaculture Principle XII: Creatively Use and Respond to Change
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Principle | Approach | Relation | Examples with Evidence |
---|---|---|---|
I. Observe and Interact | bottom-up | Design process, management | Adaptive management |
II. Catch and Store Energy | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Organic mulch application |
Rainwater harvesting measures | |||
Woody elements in agriculture | |||
III. Obtain a Yield | bottom-up | Design process, management | Emergy evaluation |
Ecosystem services concept | |||
IV. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Enhancement of regulating ecosystem services |
Natural habitats in agricultural landscapes | |||
Wildflower strips | |||
V. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Legumes and animal manure as nutrient source |
Mycorrhizal fungi | |||
VI. Produce no Waste | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Animal manure |
Human excreta | |||
Waste products as animal feed | |||
VII. Design from Patterns to Details | top-down | Agroecosystem structure, Design process | Natural ecosystem mimicry |
Use of grazing animals in cold and dry climates | |||
Structurally complex agroforests in tropical climates | |||
VIII. Integrate Rather than Segregate | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | Integration of livestock in corn cropping |
Cereals and canola used for forage and grain harvest | |||
Integration of fish in rice cropping | |||
Polyculture (crops) | |||
IX. Use Small and Slow Solutions | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | Inverse productivity-size relationship |
Agroforestry systems | |||
X. Use and Value Diversity | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | Plant species diversity |
Pollinator diversity | |||
Habitat diversity | |||
Diversified farming systems | |||
XI. Use Edges and Value the Marginal | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | High field border density |
Field margins | |||
Edges with forests | |||
XII. Creatively Use and Respond to Change | top-down | Design process, management | Decision-making under uncertainty |
Increase ecological resilience | |||
Directed natural succession |
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Krebs, J.; Bach, S. Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218
Krebs J, Bach S. Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems. Sustainability. 2018; 10(9):3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218
Chicago/Turabian StyleKrebs, Julius, and Sonja Bach. 2018. "Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems" Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218