Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Biodiversity Loss
1.2. Loss of Soil Organic Matter
1.3. Water Usage
1.4. Greenhouse Gas Emission
1.5. Nitrogen Cycle
1.6. Phosphorus
2. Agroecology
Agroecology Principles
- Enhance recycling of biomass and optimizing nutrient availability and balancing nutrient flow;
- securing favorable soil conditions for plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter and enhancing soil biotic activity;
- minimizing losses due to flows of solar radiation, air, and water by way of microclimate management, water harvesting, and soil management through increased soil cover;
- species and genetic diversification of the agroecosystem in time and space; and
- enhance beneficial biological interactions and synergisms among agrobiodiversity components, thus resulting in the promotion of key ecological processes and services.
- Optimizing the use of locally available resources by combining the different components of the farm system [...];
- reducing the use of off-farm, external, and non-renewable inputs with the greatest potential to damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers [...];
- relying mainly on resources within the agroecosystem by replacing external inputs with nutrient cycling, better conservation, and an expanded use of local resources;
- working to value and conserve biological diversity, both in the wild and in domesticated landscapes, and making optimal use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal species;
- improving the match between cropping patterns and the productive potential and environmental constraints [...]; and
- taking full advantage of local knowledge and practices, including innovative approaches not yet fully understood by scientists although widely adopted by farmers.
- Step 1:
- Observation of the naturally occurring ecosystem;
- Step 2:
- Development and testing of new techniques in experiments; and
- Step 3:
- Implementation of the new techniques by farmers.
3. Permaculture
3.1. Permaculture Principles
3.1.1. Permaculture Principle I: Observe and Interact
3.1.2. Permaculture Principle II: Catch and Store Energy
3.1.3. Permaculture Principle III: Obtain a Yield
3.1.4. Permaculture principle IV: Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback
3.1.5. Permaculture principle V: Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services
3.1.6. Permaculture Principle VI: Produce No Waste
3.1.7. Permaculture Principle VII: Design from Patterns to Details
3.1.8. Permaculture Principle VIII: Integrate Rather than Segregate
3.1.9. Permaculture Principle IX: Use Small and Slow Solutions
3.1.10. Permaculture Principle X: Use and Value Diversity
3.1.11. Permaculture Principle XI: Use Edges and Value the Marginal
3.1.12. Permaculture Principle XII: Creatively Use and Respond to Change
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Principle | Approach | Relation | Examples with Evidence |
---|---|---|---|
I. Observe and Interact | bottom-up | Design process, management | Adaptive management |
II. Catch and Store Energy | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Organic mulch application |
Rainwater harvesting measures | |||
Woody elements in agriculture | |||
III. Obtain a Yield | bottom-up | Design process, management | Emergy evaluation |
Ecosystem services concept | |||
IV. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Enhancement of regulating ecosystem services |
Natural habitats in agricultural landscapes | |||
Wildflower strips | |||
V. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Legumes and animal manure as nutrient source |
Mycorrhizal fungi | |||
VI. Produce no Waste | bottom-up | Agroecosystem structure | Animal manure |
Human excreta | |||
Waste products as animal feed | |||
VII. Design from Patterns to Details | top-down | Agroecosystem structure, Design process | Natural ecosystem mimicry |
Use of grazing animals in cold and dry climates | |||
Structurally complex agroforests in tropical climates | |||
VIII. Integrate Rather than Segregate | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | Integration of livestock in corn cropping |
Cereals and canola used for forage and grain harvest | |||
Integration of fish in rice cropping | |||
Polyculture (crops) | |||
IX. Use Small and Slow Solutions | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | Inverse productivity-size relationship |
Agroforestry systems | |||
X. Use and Value Diversity | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | Plant species diversity |
Pollinator diversity | |||
Habitat diversity | |||
Diversified farming systems | |||
XI. Use Edges and Value the Marginal | top-down | Agroecosystem structure | High field border density |
Field margins | |||
Edges with forests | |||
XII. Creatively Use and Respond to Change | top-down | Design process, management | Decision-making under uncertainty |
Increase ecological resilience | |||
Directed natural succession |
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Krebs, J.; Bach, S. Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218
Krebs J, Bach S. Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems. Sustainability. 2018; 10(9):3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218
Chicago/Turabian StyleKrebs, Julius, and Sonja Bach. 2018. "Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems" Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218
APA StyleKrebs, J., & Bach, S. (2018). Permaculture—Scientific Evidence of Principles for the Agroecological Design of Farming Systems. Sustainability, 10(9), 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218