A Pilot Plant Study on the Autoclaving of Food Wastes for Resource Recovery and Reutilization
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials and Experiments
2.2. Analyses
2.2.1. Solid Analyses
2.2.2. Liquid Analyses
2.2.3. Gas Analyses
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Properties of FW
3.2. Autoclaving of FW
3.2.1. Volume Reduction of FWA
3.2.2. Change of Some Basic Properties of FWA
3.2.3. Energy Intensity of FWA
3.2.4. Comparison of Properties of FWA with Compost Standards
3.2.5. Properties of Autoclaved and Condensed Liquid Products
3.2.6. Properties of Gases Formed
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
AT-t | Autoclaving at T K and t min (e.g., A408-15: at 408 K and 15 min) |
CG1, CG2 | concentrations of G1, G2 (ppmv) |
CGR | Concentrations of GR (ppmv) |
COD | Chemical oxygen demand (mg/L) |
EC | Electrical conductivity (μS/cm) |
G1, G2 | Released gases after condenser as pressures in autoclave were reduced to P1 and P2 after finishing the autoclaving at setting time |
GR | Gas in autoclave after opening the reactor lid at the end of autoclaving as the pressure in autoclave was reduced to ambient |
HHDM | Higher heating value per mass in dry basis (kcal/kg) |
HHDV | Higher heating value per volume in dry basis (kcal/kg) |
HHWM | Higher heating value per mass in wet basis (kcal/kg) |
MA | Ash (wt.%) |
MC | Combustibles (wt.%) |
MFC | Fixed carbon (wt.%) |
MVM | Volatile matters (wt.%) |
MW | Water content (wt.%) |
NH3-N | ammonium nitrogen (mg/L) |
P | Steam pressure for autoclaving (kg/cm2, gauge) |
P1, P2 | Two pressures in autoclave as gas were released after finishing the autoclaving at setting time (kg/cm2, gauge) |
r | Rotation speed of autoclave (rpm) |
T | Autoclaving temperature (K or °C) |
THCs | Total hydrocarbons (ppmv) |
TOC | Total organic carbons (mg/L) |
t | Autoclaving times (min) |
VBW | Wet bulk volume (L) |
ρBD | Dry bulk density (kg/m3) |
ρBW | Wet bulk density (kg/m3) |
Abbreviations
ASTM | American Society for Testing and Materials |
CNS | Chinese National Standards |
FW | Food wastes |
FWA | Autoclaved food wastes |
LC | Condensed liquid from the released gas from autoclave |
LA | Autoclaved liquid product separated from FWA |
HTL | Hydrothermal liquefaction |
IWPB | Initiative Wood Pellet Buyers |
MSW | Municipal solid wastes |
NIEA | National Institute of Environmental Analysis |
RDF | Refused derived fuel |
SRF | Solid recovered fuel |
TBSMI | Taiwan Bureau of Standards, Metrology, and Inspection |
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FW | A408-15 c | A408-60 | A428-15 | A428-60 | A438-15 | A438-60 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proximate analysis a (wt.%) | Combustibles, MC | 6.4347 | 9.1280 | 6.3803 | 8.3441 | 7.8499 | 7.9829 | 7.1092 |
Fixed carbon, MFC | 0.1708 | 0.1871 | 0.2244 | 0.2531 | 0.2604 | 0.2569 | 0.2220 | |
Volatile matters, MVM | 6.2639 | 8.9409 | 6.1559 | 8.0910 | 7.5895 | 7.7260 | 6.8872 | |
Ash, MA | 0.8339 | 0.9056 | 0.8409 | 0.8668 | 1.0020 | 1.0351 | 0.9491 | |
Water content, MW | 92.7314 | 89.9664 | 92.7788 | 90.7891 | 91.1481 | 90.9820 | 91.9417 | |
Ultimate analysis b (wt.%) | C | 37.545 ± 0.136 | 39.917 ± 0.115 | 39.202 ± 0.066 | 39.887 ± 0.047 | 40.626 ± 0.085 | 36.936 ± 0.261 | 42.021 ± 0.748 |
H | 5.688 ± 0.086 | 5.903 ± 0.064 | 5.753 ± 0.056 | 5.863 ± 0.051 | 5.786 ± 0.001 | 5.635 ± 0.081 | 5.799 ± 0.081 | |
O | 51.582 | 50.059 | 50.917 | 50.477 | 49.678 | 53.436 | 48.416 | |
N | 3.514 ± 0.013 | 3.236 ± 0.029 | 3.283 ± 0.030 | 3.049 ± 0.083 | 3.103 ± 0.116 | 3.152 ± 0.033 | 3.024 ± 0.004 | |
S | 1.673 ± 0.158 | 0.887 ± 0.056 | 0.846 ± 0.008 | 0.725 ± 0.037 | 0.808 ± 0.034 | 0.816 ± 0.040 | 0.742 ± 0.060 | |
Fiber analysis b | Hemicellulose | 3.3881 | 0.9686 | 0.0473 | 0.0589 | 3.8682 | 0.7695 | 1.9842 |
Cellulose | 47.9564 | 42.2591 | 40.6410 | 47.4245 | 44.1061 | 45.2092 | 38.7206 | |
Lignin | 22.9077 | 14.7414 | 16.0123 | 17.1644 | 26.1972 | 16.2790 | 24.2762 | |
Heating value | HHDM (kcal/kg) | 3954.66 ± 8.09 | 3761.81 ± 954.58 | 3351.37 ± 61.37 | 3449.80 ± 200.53 | 2976.66 ± 436.98 | 3065.04 ± 367.58 | 2800.27 ± 158.48 |
HHDV (kcal/m3) | 103194.33 | 424625.63 | 272987.43 | 352711.78 | 304895.82 | 284973.23 | 233261.01 | |
HHWM (kcal/kg) | 287.45 | 377.45 | 242.01 | 317.76 | 263.49 | 276.40 | 225.65 |
Property in Wet Basis | Standard | FW | A408-15 | A408-60 | A428-15 | A428-60 | A438-15 | A438-60 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H2O (wt.%) | <40 | 92.7314 | 89.9664 | 92.7788 | 90.7891 | 91.1481 | 90.9820 | 91.9417 |
C/N (wt.%/wt.%) | 10–25 | 10.68 | 12.34 | 11.94 | 13.08 | 13.09 | 11.72 | 13.90 |
N * (wt.%) | 0.6–5.0 | 3.514 ± 0.013 | 3.236 ± 0.029 | 3.283 ± 0.030 | 3.049 ± 0.083 | 3.103 ± 0.116 | 3.152 ± 0.033 | 3.024 ± 0.004 |
P (mg/kg) | 3.91 × 103 | 4.20 × 103 | 4.54 × 103 | 3.85 × 103 | 5.03 × 103 | 4.94 × 103 | 5.76 × 103 | |
P2O5 (wt.%) | 0.3–6.0 | 8.96 × 10−3 | 9.62 × 10−3 | 1.04 × 10−2 | 8.82 × 10−3 | 1.15 × 10−2 | 1.13 × 10−2 | 1.32 × 10−2 |
K (mg/kg) | 2.92 × 104 | 1.80 × 104 | 1.97 × 104 | 1.60 × 104 | 1.59 × 104 | 1.99 × 104 | 1.79 × 104 | |
K2O (wt.%) | 0.3–4.0 | 3.52 × 10−2 | 2.17 × 10−2 | 2.37 × 10−2 | 1.93 × 10−2 | 1.92 × 10−2 | 2.40 × 10−2 | 2.16 × 10−2 |
Cu (mg/kg) | <100 | 42.4 | 31.7 | 30.5 | 29.8 | 52.5 | 56.5 | 50.9 |
Cr (mg/kg) | <150 | 8.00 | 7.61 | 5.77 | 5.74 | 7.73 | 6.65 | 7.52 |
Pb (mg/kg) | <150 | 5.84 | 5.89 | 6.74 | 7.16 | 9.86 | 5.44 | 11.1 |
Cd (mg/kg) | <2.0 | <0.70 | <0.70 | <0.70 | <0.70 | <0.70 | <0.70 | <0.70 |
Zn (mg/kg) | <250 | 41.3 | 75.7 | 94.0 | 77.2 | 139 | 79.0 | 369 |
Ni (mg/kg) | <25.0 | 14.3 | 12.2 | 18.0 | 12.6 | 20.3 | 22.1 | 19.5 |
As (mg/kg) | <25.0 | <1.7 | <1.7 | <1.7 | <1.7 | <1.7 | <1.7 | ND |
Hg (mg/kg) | <1.0 | <0.015 | <0.015 | 0.025 | <0.015 | 0.021 | 0.015 | <0.015 |
Autoclaved Liquid (LA) | |||||||
Condition | Item | ||||||
Temperature (K) | Time (min) | Rotation Speed (rpm) | pH | Electrical Conductivity (μS/cm) | COD (mg/L) | TOC (mg/L) | NH3-N (mg/L) |
408 | 15 | 7 | 4.94 | 9.84 × 103 | 1.04 × 104 | 1.21 × 103 | 2.70 × 102 |
408 | 60 | 7 | 4.73 | 9.15 × 103 | 2.00 × 104 | 9.38 × 102 | - |
428 | 15 | 7 | 4.72 | 9.68 × 103 | 2.16 × 104 | 1.11 × 103 | 3.10 × 102 |
428 | 60 | 7 | 4.44 | 9.17 × 103 | 1.96 × 104 | 9.48 × 102 | - |
438 | 15 | 7 | 5.18 | 9.86 × 103 | 2.25 × 104 | 1.04 × 103 | - |
438 | 60 | 7 | 4.42 | 9.20 × 103 | 2.12 × 104 | 9.70 × 102 | - |
Condensed Liquid (LC) | |||||||
Condition | Item | ||||||
Temperature (K) | Time (min) | Rotation Speed (rpm) | pH | Electrical Conductivity (μS/cm) | COD (mg/L) | TOC (mg/L) | NH3-N (mg/L) |
408 | 15 | 7 | 7.26 | 2.67 × 102 | 3.06 × 102 | 1.33 × 102 | 3.00 |
408 | 60 | 7 | 6.68 | 2.65 × 102 | 6.27 × 102 | 2.24 × 102 | - |
428 | 15 | 7 | 8.54 | 2.48 × 102 | 3.90 × 102 | 1.51 × 102 | 3.50 |
428 | 60 | 7 | 8.29 | 2.39 × 102 | 8.27 × 102 | 2.57 × 102 | - |
438 | 15 | 7 | 8.78 | 2.77 × 102 | 5.07 × 102 | 1.87 × 102 | - |
438 | 60 | 7 | 8.19 | 2.44 × 102 | 8.67 × 102 | 2.79 × 102 | - |
Condition | 408 K, 15 min | 408 K, 60 min | 428 K, 15 min | 428 K, 60 min | 438 K, 15 min | 438 K, 60 min | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rotation Speed | 7 rpm | 7 rpm | 7 rpm | 7 rpm | 7 rpm | 7 rpm | ||||||||||||||
Limonene | C10H16 | Alkene | ● 1 | ● 2 | ● 3 | ● 1 | ● 2 | ● 3 | ● 1 | ● 2 | ● 3 | ● 1 | ● 2 | ● 3 | ● 1 | ● 2 | ● 3 | ● 1 | ● 2 | ● 3 |
α-pinene | C10H16 | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||
1R-α-pinene | C10H16 | ● | ● | |||||||||||||||||
1S-α-pinene | C10H16 | ● | ||||||||||||||||||
β-pinene | C10H16 | ● | ● | ● | ||||||||||||||||
2-methyl propanal | C4H8O | Aldehyde | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||
3-methyl butanal | C5H10O | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||
2-methyl butanal | C5H10O | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||||||||||
Carbon dioxide | CO2 | Others | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||||
Alcohol | C2H6O | ● | ● | |||||||||||||||||
Dimethyl sulfide | C2H6S | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||||
Dimethyl disulfide | C2H6S2 | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||
2,3-butanedione | C4H6O2 | ● | ● | ● | ||||||||||||||||
Nitrogen | N2 | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |
Water | H2O | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● |
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Chang, C.-C.; Chen, Y.-H.; Lin, Y.-S.; Hung, Z.-S.; Yuan, M.-H.; Chang, C.-Y.; Li, Y.-S.; Shie, J.-L.; Chen, Y.-H.; Wang, Y.-C.; et al. A Pilot Plant Study on the Autoclaving of Food Wastes for Resource Recovery and Reutilization. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3566. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103566
Chang C-C, Chen Y-H, Lin Y-S, Hung Z-S, Yuan M-H, Chang C-Y, Li Y-S, Shie J-L, Chen Y-H, Wang Y-C, et al. A Pilot Plant Study on the Autoclaving of Food Wastes for Resource Recovery and Reutilization. Sustainability. 2018; 10(10):3566. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103566
Chicago/Turabian StyleChang, Chia-Chi, Yen-Hau Chen, Yi-Shiou Lin, Zang-Sei Hung, Min-Hao Yuan, Ching-Yuan Chang, Yuan-Shen Li, Je-Lueng Shie, Yi-Hung Chen, Yen-Chi Wang, and et al. 2018. "A Pilot Plant Study on the Autoclaving of Food Wastes for Resource Recovery and Reutilization" Sustainability 10, no. 10: 3566. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103566