3.2. Methodology
In the study area, all farmland can be irrigated by groundwater and could therefore be classified as well-irrigated cropland. However, only some cropland, i.e., lands adjacent to rivers or canals or are connected by sublateral canals, can be classified as canal-irrigated cropland. Therefore, croplands were classified into two categories: well-irrigated cropland and double-irrigated cropland (i.e., cropland that could be irrigated by both groundwater and canal/river water).
The agricultural areas of the study region are divided into land parcels by roads, rivers, canals, various landforms, and administrative units. Land parcels were initially extracted from remote sensing images using the visual interpretation method. Rivers and canals are typically more than 2 m wide, and data for these waterways were extracted from the Gao Fen Er Hao images. According to our investigation, if a land parcel is within 300 m of the river or canals and the river or canals contain enough water, farmers often connect the land parcel to the river through water belts (
Figure 2); therefore, these land parcels were classified as canal-irrigated cropland using the visual interpretation method. Sublateral canals are a type of connection ditch between rivers/canals and land parcels or between wells and land parcels; these canals are approximately 1.0 m wide. The pan-band of the Gao Fen Er Hao images is sensitive to water, and the sublateral canals could be identified from the 0.8 m resolution images. If a land parcel was located far from the river, but was connected to it by sublateral canals, it was also classified as canal-irrigated cropland. All other land parcels were classified as well-irrigated cropland. Our categorizations were checked while using 30 samples for canal-irrigated cropland and 30 samples for well-irrigated cropland. All of the samples were randomly selected in the study area, and the percentage of accurately classified irrigated cropland was above 95% (
Table 1), verifying that our classification method was appropriate for the categorization of irrigated cropland.
The crops in the study area primarily include winter wheat, summer corn, and soybean. Winter wheat is planted in early October and harvested in early June. After winter wheat is harvested, summer corn or soybeans grow from early June to October, during which rainfall is abundant and irrigation is unnecessary. By contrast, winter wheat requires three irrigation events during its growing season. The first irrigation occurs in early October when the wheat is planted. The second occurs in late March, and the third is in early May when the wheat is in the filling stage.
The river water used for irrigation is supplied from the irrigation canals. The water gate at the Yellow River irrigation canals is opened during the irrigation period to allow for waters from the Yellow River to flow into the canals. Due to sand deposition and damage from human activities, some parts of the canal system have become blocked, and no irrigation water is able to flow through them. When this occurs, the corresponding cropland shifts to well irrigation. The actual area that is irrigated during the wheat growing season seldom changes. Therefore, the Gao Fen Er Hao images that were recorded in early May 2017 were used to extract the actual canal irrigation area.
The gross irrigation water use from various water sources was calculated while using Equation (1):
where W
g is gross water use (m
3), N is gross irrigation norm (m
3/ha), and A is actual irrigation area (ha). N changes as annual rainfall changes. Gross water use was estimated based on various values of N under different probabilities of irrigation (
Table 2).
The improved Penman-Monteith equation was used to calculate daily potential evapotranspiration (Equation (2)) [
11]:
where PE is the potential evapotranspiration (mm d
–1), R
n is net canopy radiation (MJ m
–2 d
–1), G is soil heat flux (MJ m
–2 d
–1), T is the air temperature at 2 m height (°C), U
2 is the wind velocity at 2 m height (m s
–1), e
s is the saturation vapor pressure (k Pa), e
a is vapor pressure (k Pa), Δ is the slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve (k Pa °C
–1), and γ is the psychrometer constant (k Pa °C
–1). Values of T, U
2, and e
a were obtained from weather station data. R
ns is net shortwave radiation (MJ m
–2 day
–1), α
2 is albedo, R
s is shortwave radiation (MJ m
–2 day
–1), n is actual duration of sunshine (h), N is the maximum possible duration of sunshine or daylight (h), a
s and b
s are the fractions of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the Earth on a clear day (n = N), R
a is extraterrestrial radiation (MJ m
–2 day
–1), G
sc is a solar constant (0.082 MJ m
–2 min
–1), d
r is the inverse relative distance between the Sun and the Earth, J is the day of the year ranging from 1 to 365 or 366, δ is solar declination (rad), φ is latitude (rad), L
m is longitude (degrees), R
nl is net longwave radiation (MJ m
–2 day
–1), T
max is the maximum absolute temperature during a 24 h period, and T
min is the minimum absolute temperature during a 24 h period. Daily evapotranspiration was summed to 10-day evapotranspiration.
Equation (8) was used to calculate the effective precipitation [
12]:
where EP is effective precipitation (mm/d), P is precipitation (mm/d) and
is the coefficient of precipitation. The value of
is gotten according to Fang (2008) [
12].
Crop evapotranspiration is calculated with Equation (9):
where ETc is crop evapotranspiration (mm/d) and Kc is the winter wheat coefficient.
The growing period of winter wheat is divided into several stages [
11] (Allen et al., 1985, wenku.baidu.com). Kc is the winter wheat coefficient that is calculated according to Equation (10).
where K
0 is a value provided by the FAO, U2 is the mean value for daily wind speed at 2 m height (m/s), RHmin is the daily minimum relative humidity (%), and h is plant height (m) during the growth stage.
Equation (11) was used to calculate the minimum amount of irrigation water for winter wheat (MIW):
where ET
c is actual water consumption by evapotranspiration (mm/d), EP is effective precipitation (mm/d), and G
n is the underground water supply (mm/d), which was 0 in our study area. D is the number of days of winter wheat growth.
Values of mean MIW were listed in numerical order, and then the accumulative percentages of 50% and 75% were obtained. The mean MIW for probabilities of 50% and 75% were calculated.