Energy Sustainability: A Pragmatic Approach and Illustrations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
2.1. Energy
- Energy forms: Energy comes in a variety of forms, including fossil fuels, fossil fuel-based products (e.g., gasoline, diesel fuel), uranium, electricity, work (such as the mechanical energy in a rotating engine shaft), heat, heated substances (e.g., steam, hot air), light and other electromagnetic radiation.
- Energy sources: Energy resources (sometimes called primary energy forms) are found in the natural environment. Some are available in finite quantities (e.g., fossil fuels, fossil fuel-containing substances, peat and uranium). Some energy resources are renewable (or relatively renewable), including solar energy, falling water, wind, tides, geothermal heat and biomass fuels (when the growth rate is not below the rate of use). Energy resources are often processed from their raw forms prior to use.
- Energy carriers: Energy carriers (or currencies) are the energy forms that we use, and include some energy resources (e.g., fossil fuels) and processed energy forms (e.g., gasoline, electricity, work and heat). Processed energy forms are not found in the environment.
2.2. Sustainability
2.3. Energy Sustainability
3. Approach to Energy Sustainability
3.1. Harness Sustainable Energy Sources
Fossil fuels |
Coal |
Oil |
Natural gas |
Tar sands |
Oil shales |
Peat |
Non-fossil fuels |
Biomass (when not replenished) |
Uranium |
Fusion material (e.g., deuterium) |
Wastes |
Solar radiation (direct) |
Solar-related energy |
Hydraulic energy |
Wave energy |
Wind energy |
Ocean thermal energy |
Biomass (when replenished) |
Non-solar-related energy |
Geothermal energy (ambient) |
Geothermal energy (hot) |
Tidal energy |
3.2. Utilize Sustainable Energy Carriers
Fossil fuels |
Upgraded fossil fuels |
Oil products (e.g., gasoline, diesel fuel, naphtha) |
Synthetic gaseous fuels (e.g., coal gasification products) |
Coal products (e.g., coke) |
Other chemical fuels |
Hydrogen |
Methanol |
Ammonia |
Work |
Electrical energy |
Thermal energy |
Heat (or a heated medium) |
Cold (or a cooled medium) |
3.3. Increase Efficiency
3.4. Reduce Environmental Impact
- acidification (the impact on soil and water of acidic emissions),
- ozone depletion (i.e., destruction of the atmospheric ozone layer and subsequent increases in ultraviolet reaching the earth's surface),
- abiotic resource depletion (due to the extraction of non-renewable raw materials),
- radiological effects (e.g., radiogenic cancer mortality or morbidity due to internal or external radiation exposure),
- ecotoxicity (health problems from exposure to toxic substances), and
- global warming (attributable mainly to greenhouse gas emissions and considered to be a key driver of climate change).
3.5. Improve Socioeconomic Acceptability
- Community involvement and social acceptability. People and communities must be involved in energy-related decisions if energy sustainability is to be attained, as the support of these groups is critical to success of any initiatives, and such support almost always requires consultation and involvement in decision making. A culture of sustainability can evolve when a consultative and collaborative approach is consistently followed.
- Economic affordability and equity. To be sustainable, energy services required to provide basic needs must be economically affordable by all societies and people. It is noted that some energy initiatives affordable at present, e.g., some efficiency improvement and environmental mitigation measures can be implemented in ways that save money over time. All societies need to be able to access energy resources, regardless of geographic location, to achieve energy sustainability. These ideas imply a need for equity among developed and developing countries in terms of energy opportunities. Sustainable energy options need to account for population growth since it places stresses on the environment and the carrying capacity of the planet. Also, energy sustainability requires that future generations be able to access energy resources. Equity in terms of energy is somewhat time dependent, and this author expects that short-term differences will diminish in time and energy opportunities in different countries will converge in the longer term.
- Lifestyles. Modifying lifestyles and tempering desires that are energy-driven can contribute to energy sustainability. Given that aspirations of people tend to increase continually, addressing this factor is often challenging. Transforming behavioural and decision-making patterns requires recognition that current development paths are not sustainable, but such recognition usually occurs only when significant short-term consequences are exhibited, e.g., oil-price shocks, disasters, droughts. To obtain the investments needed to reduce the risks associated with energy initiatives, the public must perceive the long-term consequences associated with present behaviour. Thus, an immediate and difficult challenge for policy makers is translating future threats associated with energy use into near-term priorities.
- Land use and aesthetics. The use of land for energy-related activities must be balanced with other needs, such as agriculture and recreation. This trade off is a particularly significant challenge with technologies like hydraulic energy, which often involves flooding large tracts of land, electricity transmission, which often traverses sensitive ecosystems, wind turbines, which are highly visible, and bioenergy, which often involves the growth of energy plants on land that could be used for other purposes. The aesthetics of the environment affect the well-being of people, making it an important aspect of sustainability. Avoiding damage to environmental aesthetics can be challenging, e.g., renewable energy technologies like solar collectors and wind turbines are considered by many to be detrimental to landscapes.
4. Illustrations
4.1. Thermal Energy Storage
- reduced energy consumption and conservation of fossil fuels (by facilitating more efficient energy use and/or fuel substitution),
- reduced pollutant emissions (CO2, SO2, NOx, CFCs, etc.),
- reduced costs (energy, initial and maintenance), and
- more efficient utilization of equipment and energy.
4.1.1. Underground thermal energy storage
4.1.2. Integrating thermal energy storage with solar energy
4.1.3. Seasonal thermal energy storage
4.2. Heat Pumps
Process | Energy use (%) | ||
Electrical | Fuel | All energy forms | |
Space heating | 15.0 | 79.5 | 66.0 |
Water heating | 14.0 | 15.0 | 10.0 |
Cooking | 5.0 | 4.5 | 1.7 |
Clothes drying | 5.0 | 1.0 | 1.3 |
Others* | 61.0 | 0.0 | 21.0 |
Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
4.2.1. Ground-source heat pumps
4.2.2. Integrating thermal energy storage with ground-source heat pumps
4.3. Cogeneration and Trigeneration
Regional parameters | Electrical-utility sector parameters | ||||
Cogeneration penetration | Electricity consumption | CO2 emissions | Coal use | Uranium use | CO2 emissions |
Low | 5 | 4 | 20 | 7 | 20 |
High | 30 | 15 | 40 | 35 | 40 |
4.4. Thermochemical Hydrogen Production
Flow | Energy (% of input energy) | Exergy (% of input exergy) |
Inputs (high-temp. heat, water) | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Products (hydrogen; potential by-product oxygen is neglected) | 20.5 | 25.0 |
Losses | 79.5 | 74.5 |
External (waste emissions) | 79.5 | 4.5 |
Internal (consumptions) | - | 70.0 |
Total products and losses | 100.0 | 100.0 |
4.5. Potential Contributions to Energy Sustainability of the Illustrative Examples
- Sustainable energy sources. Some of the examples considered help improve the utilization of sustainable energy sources and enhance energy-resource flexibility. Ground-source heat pumps produce useful heat partly by exploiting the energy in the ground, which is often referred to as a type of renewable energy. The thermochemical hydrogen production process considered here is designed to utilize non-fossil and sustainable energy resources (nuclear and solar energy). Thermal energy storage facilitates the use of sustainable energy systems but providing a buffer between times of energy availability and need, which is important for the success of intermittent renewable energy resources.
- Sustainable energy carriers. All of the examples produce or involve the use of sustainable and beneficial energy carriers. For instance, heat pumps produce useful heat, while cogeneration produces useful heat and electricity. Trigeneration produces heat, cold and electricity, while thermal energy storage assists the use of heat and cold. Thermochemical water decomposition produces hydrogen energy, a useful chemical fuel that complements electricity. Using the appropriate energy carrier for the corresponding energy demand helps enhance energy sustainability.
- Efficiency. Some of the illustrations involve technologies that greatly improve the efficiency with which energy resources are used and energy services are provided. Heat pumps and cogeneration are particularly noteworthy in this regard. Heat pumps allow heating to be provided with 15% to 25% of the energy that would otherwise be required to provide an equivalent amount of heat. Cogeneration allows electricity and thermal energy to be produced with 10% to 40% less energy resources than would be required to produce the same electricity and thermal energy in separate processes. Efforts to improve the efficiency and to integrate the examples more efficiently into society’s energy systems can also be aided by exergy analysis, which has been applied for some of the illustrations considered. The effectiveness of efficiency measures, in light of such factors as energy rebound, needs to be verified through practical demonstrations and other means.
- Environmental impact. The examples all lead to improved environmental performance in different ways, often for the reasons described in the previous three points. They address two key aspects of reducing environmental impact related to energy (appropriate resources/carriers and efficiency), and thereby enhance energy sustainability.
- Socioeconomic acceptability. Many socioeconomic factors are affected beneficially by the illustrations. For instance, many of the illustrative technologies considered are economically advantageous presently (e.g., heat pumps and cogeneration), improving affordability and equity and therefore enhancing energy sustainability.
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References and Notes
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Rosen, M.A. Energy Sustainability: A Pragmatic Approach and Illustrations. Sustainability 2009, 1, 55-80. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1010055
Rosen MA. Energy Sustainability: A Pragmatic Approach and Illustrations. Sustainability. 2009; 1(1):55-80. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1010055
Chicago/Turabian StyleRosen, Marc A. 2009. "Energy Sustainability: A Pragmatic Approach and Illustrations" Sustainability 1, no. 1: 55-80. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1010055
APA StyleRosen, M. A. (2009). Energy Sustainability: A Pragmatic Approach and Illustrations. Sustainability, 1(1), 55-80. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1010055