Next Article in Journal
Residual Effect of Imidazolinone Herbicides on Emergence and Early Development of Forage Species in Rice-Livestock Systems
Previous Article in Journal
Genetic Variability, Broad-Sense Heritability, and Selection of Superior Genotypes for Fruit Improvement in Platonia insignis
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJPB
Volume 16
Issue 3
10.3390/ijpb16030109
ijpb-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Biotechnological and Genomic Applications in the Conservation of Native Blueberries in Natural Habitats

by
Héctor Stalin Arista-Fernández
,
Angel David Hernández-Amasifuen
,
Alexandra Jherina Pineda-Lázaro
and
Juan Carlos Guerrero-Abad
*
Instituto de Investigación, Innovación y Desarrollo para el Sector Agrario y Agroindustrial (IIDAA), Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Calle Higos Urco 342–Ciudad Universitaria, Chachapoyas 01000, Peru
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Plant Biol. 2025, 16(3), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijpb16030109
Submission received: 23 August 2025 / Revised: 9 September 2025 / Accepted: 11 September 2025 / Published: 17 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Plant Biochemistry and Genetics)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

The conservation of native blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) from Andean and Amazonian ecosystems faces challenges from climate change, habitat fragmentation, and land use. In this context, this review article provides a comprehensive analysis of the most relevant biotechnological and genomic tools applied to the preservation of these plant genetic resources, as well as their characterization. Among the biotechnological strategies, in vitro micropropagation delivers clonal pathogen-free valuable plants, while cryopreservation offers a viable option for a long-term germplasm storage. We also summarize its protocols focus on high regeneration rates and reproducibility. In the genomic field, we show advances in the use of molecular markers (such as SNPs, SSRs, and RAPDs), DNA barcoding and next-generation sequencing that leads genetic diversity assessment and identification of species. Finally, future perspectives in native blueberry conservation are discussed that allow the integration of emerging technologies such as landscape genomics, environmental transcriptomics, and the use of artificial intelligence tools. Integrating these approaches with the active participation of local communities can substantially strengthen the sustainable conservation of native blueberries in their natural habitats.

1. Introduction

Within global efforts to safeguard plant genetic resources for ecosystem sustainability, food security, and climate-change adaptation [1], blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) comprise numerous species and ecotypes of high ecological, nutritional, and medicinal value [2,3]. Blueberries are prized for their berries rich in anthocyanins, flavonoids, and other bioactive compounds associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disorders and diabetes [4,5].
Blueberries have gained global prominence due to their high yields and health-promoting properties, making them one of the most productive fruit crops with great potential around the world [6,7]. However, many wild blueberry species are threatened by intensive agriculture, urban expansion, and climate change, which erode genetic diversity and jeopardize long-term persistence [8]. Genetic resource conservation is essential not only to maintain ecological balance in Andean and Amazonian ecosystems, but also to develop new cultivars that could be more resilient to biotic and abiotic stresses and exhibit desirable nutritional and functional profiles [9,10].
Among the available conservation tools, in vitro micropropagation is one of the most efficient approaches [11]. It enables the production of genetically uniform, pathogen-free plants under controlled conditions, preserving unique traits that could be lost in conventional systems [12,13]. Moreover, cryopreservation allows long-term storage of Vaccinium germplasm in liquid nitrogen that maintains its viability for a long time [3]. Together, these complementary strategies underpin ex situ conservation programs, facilitate rapid multiplication for restoration and breeding, and provide insurance against stochastic losses in small or fragmented populations, particularly across Andean and Amazonian hotspots.
Genomic tools, particularly next-generation sequencing, play a key role in identifying genes associated with environmental-stress tolerance, nutritional quality, and climate adaptation [14]. Combined with predictive models, these technologies help prioritize conservation areas and support breeding programs by guiding marker-assisted selection and the identification of priority germplasm [15]. Despite progress, challenges remain, including adaptation to shifting climates and safeguarding genetic diversity [16]. Integrating in situ and ex situ strategies, while harmonizing genomic, phenotypic, and geospatial datasets, is therefore essential to ensure long-term viability and adaptability [17].
This review synthesizes current biotechnological and genomic approaches for blueberry conservation, with emphasis on in vitro micropropagation, cryopreservation, and genomic tools. We highlight methodological challenges and the need for integrated strategies to ensure sustainable use and conservation, particularly in high-Andean and Amazonian ecosystems.

2. Genetic Diversity and Conservation of Native Blueberries

The genetic diversity of native blueberries constitutes a strategic resource for addressing challenges related to climate change, food security, and sustainable agricultural innovation. Wild Vaccinium species found in high-Andean and Amazonian regions, including Vaccinium floribundum Kunth (Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru), V. meridionale Sw. (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela), and V. mathewsii Sleumer (Peru), exhibit adaptations to acidic soils, low temperatures, and high UV, and often form isolated high-elevation populations, highlighting both their high antioxidant potential and the need to define evolutionarily significant units and to integrate in situ and ex situ conservation strategies [18,19,20]. From an agri-food perspective, these species constitute a pool of useful genes for developing new cultivars with greater resilience and enhanced nutritional value [21].
Plant genetic resources distributed across montane ecosystems and humid forests also play crucial ecological roles. Beyond supporting biodiversity, these ecotypes contribute to pollination, climate regulation, and the provision of ecosystem services, particularly in rural areas where local communities preserve and manage these resources based on traditional knowledge [22,23]. In situ conservation within natural habitats preserves both genetic diversity and cultural ties with Indigenous peoples [24].
By contrast, ex situ conservation plays a complementary role, safeguarding germplasm under controlled conditions. Seed banks, in vitro collections, and botanical gardens ensure the availability of genetic material for scientific research, ecological restoration, and crop-improvement efforts [25,26]. These strategies help prevent irreversible diversity loss caused by wildfires, deforestation, and the introduction of commercial varieties that displace native ones [27].
At the institutional level, ex situ capacity is underpinned by major genebanks: the USDA–ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository (NCGR; Corvallis, OR, USA) curates the world’s most comprehensive clonal Vaccinium collection, now exceeding ~1800 accessions and ~83 taxa, with earlier reports documenting > 1700 accessions and ~81 taxa—evidence of steady growth [28]. The NCGR also develops “core” (nucleus) subsets, typically ~10% of the full collection, to capture maximal genetic diversity and streamline evaluation, distribution, and pre-breeding [29]. In Europe, holdings are coordinated through the ECPGR Vaccinium/Berries Working Group and documented in the EURISCO catalogue, which aggregates passport and phenotypic data across national repositories (e.g., NordGen, IPK); while valuable, European Vaccinium holdings remain smaller in scale than the NCGR collection [30]. These institutional assets provide the ex situ backbone, which is most effective when complemented by community-based in situ stewardship across native habitats.
Building on this ex situ backbone, nucleus (core) collections are representative subsets, typically about 10% of a genebank, that capture most of the collection’s genetic diversity with minimal redundancy. Their construction integrates passport, phenotypic, and molecular information to maximize allelic richness and enable rapid screening for priority traits such as disease resistance, fruit quality, and local adaptation. In Vaccinium, the USDA–ARS NCGR curates well-documented materials routinely used for research, identity verification, and pre-breeding, thereby underpinning the design and maintenance of operational core subsets [28,29,31]. This institutional framework is most effective when complemented by community-based, in situ stewardship across native high-Andean habitats, providing continuity between ex situ resources and on-farm conservation.
In parallel at the community scale, traditional agriculture, still practiced in many high-Andean settings, supports the conservation of local ecotypes through agroforestry systems that combine staple crops with wild fruit species, including blueberries. This management actively maintains genetic diversity and ensures continued access to nutrient-rich fruits. In this context, farmers act as biodiversity custodians and key agents of climate-change adaptation [18,32].
Nonetheless, these conservation strategies face increasing threats. Habitat loss from deforestation, urban expansion, and intensive agriculture, along with the uncontrolled use of improved cultivars, leads to genetic erosion and displacement of native species [33,34]. The lack of comprehensive conservation policies and limited research funding further restrict field implementation. Moreover, a disconnect persists between available scientific knowledge and its application in public policies or local management plans.
To overcome these challenges, collaboration among local actors, scientific institutions, and both public and private sectors is essential. Strengthening capacities in genetic conservation, creating protected areas, designing economic incentives for sustainable resource management, and implementing educational programs are all crucial steps. The integration of in situ and ex situ strategies with biotechnological tools will enable the effective conservation of native blueberry genetic heritage and support equitable, resilient rural development [35,36].

3. Biotechnology Applied to Conservation

Biotechnological tools applied to native blueberries offer essential support for the conservation, propagation, and sustainable use of their genetic diversity [37]. In particular, techniques such as micropropagation and cryopreservation have proven effective in conserving wild species with ecological and agronomic value [32,38]. These methodologies help overcome limitations associated with sexual reproduction, such as low seed viability or poor genetic uniformity, by facilitating the production of homogeneous and pathogen-free plants [4,13].
Micropropagation, based on in vitro plant tissue culture, enables large-scale plant multiplication using explants such as shoot tips, nodes, leaves, or roots [39]. This technique is ideal for native species with slow or limited propagation, and for conserving unique genotypes that require efficient clonal reproduction. It can also be combined with technologies such as temporary immersion bioreactors (TIBs) [40,41]. Figure 1 illustrates the main explant types used in tissue culture of Vaccinium; these techniques allow for the exploitation of various plant structures for mass propagation, ex situ conservation, phytosanitary cleanup, and genetic improvement.
In several Vaccinium species, efficient micropropagation protocols have been developed. For example, V. meridionale exhibits high shoot proliferation rates in MS medium supplemented with 2-isopentenyladenine (2-iP) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) [42], while V. consanguineum responds well to combinations of benzyladenine (BA) and zeatin in WPM medium [43]. Similarly, V. corymbosum cultivars propagated in bioreactors show 30–40% more internode production compared to traditional solid media [40]. These and other findings are summarized in Table 1, which compiles relevant in vitro propagation protocols across Vaccinium species.
Cryopreservation complements micropropagation as a long-term storage technique. It involves preserving plant material in liquid nitrogen (−196 °C), thereby halting metabolic activity and maintaining genetic viability without alteration for decades [46]. This approach has been successfully applied to Vaccinium species using methods such as droplet vitrification, encapsulation–dehydration, and cryo-plates [1,47]. Its strategic value lies in enabling secure germplasm banks that safeguard biodiversity against threats such as climate change or genetic erosion [48].
Building on this, recent blueberry protocols in Vaccinium corymbosum achieve high post-thaw regrowth (often approaching ~90%) using D cryo-plate and droplet-vitrification pipelines that combine sucrose preculture, loading solution, and PVS2-based dehydration (e.g., D/V cryo-plate) [1,49]. However, there are no reports of cryopreservation methods for native Andean species such as V. floribundum and V. meridionale; consequently, the optimized highbush pipelines offer a directly adaptable template for safeguarding native germplasm over the long term, complementing in vitro storage and field genebanks [50]. Table 2 summarizes current methods and key findings across Vaccinium.
Integrating micropropagation with cryopreservation enables dual conservation systems that combine living collections with backup genetic reserves [53]. This synergy strengthens ex situ strategies and facilitates the reintroduction of valuable materials into restoration or breeding programs. It also makes it possible to conserve endemic ecotypes with low propagation potential, broaden the genetic base of commercial cultivars, and provide rapid response to extreme events such as habitat loss [35].
Ultimately, success hinges on species-specific protocol optimization and access to specialized laboratories. Nevertheless, their potential is vast, particularly for underutilized native species, and their implementation can be linked to local development programs, participatory conservation, and sustainable use. Incorporating these techniques into national conservation plans offers an effective and replicable strategy to safeguard the genetic heritage of native blueberries while enhancing their ecological and economic value [24,36].

4. Genomic and Molecular Tools

Genomic tools have transformed the characterization, conservation, and genetic improvement of blueberry germplasm [54]. These technologies enable deep analysis of genetic diversity, identification of key genes, and the design of targeted breeding strategies [43]. Widely used approaches include molecular markers, structural and functional genomics, DNA barcoding, and next-generation sequencing (NGS), all of which have become pillars of modern conservation programs for Vaccinium spp. [11]. These methodologies have enhanced molecular taxonomy, improved germplasm bank management, and opened new possibilities for the valorization of native and wild species [55].
Molecular markers such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), simple sequence repeats (SSRs), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSRs), and expressed sequence tag (EST)-PCR have been successfully applied to assess genetic variability in both wild and cultivated blueberries [41]. These markers allow for the identification of loci associated with agronomic traits such as disease resistance, anthocyanin content, and tolerance to environmental stress [17]. They have also played a critical role in the construction of linkage maps and marker-assisted selection (MAS), thus increasing the efficiency of breeding programs [40].
For example, the study by Dhrumit et al. [21] using RAPD markers on 70 blueberry genotypes revealed high genetic diversity associated with variations in bioactive compound content. Similarly, Bell et al. [56] employed EST-PCR markers to discriminate among Vaccinium angustifolium species and clones, achieving high-resolution genetic differentiation. A synthesis of such research is presented in Table 3, summarizing species, marker types, and key findings regarding diversity, QTL mapping, and breeding implications.
DNA barcoding has also emerged as a highly effective tool for the identification of native blueberry species, especially in regions such as the Peruvian Andes where many taxa are cryptic or poorly described [37]. This technique uses conserved DNA sequences (e.g., rbcL, matK, ITS) to assign reliable taxonomic identities, even at early phenological stages or from degraded samples [45]. Figure 2 illustrates the DNA barcoding concept and its application in species delimitation within Vaccinium spp.
In Peru, recent studies have validated the use of DNA barcoding for identifying wild berry species. Tineo et al. [20] generated rbcL/matK (and nuclear ITS/GBSSI) sequences for wild V. meridionale, V. mathewsii, and V. floribundum from Amazonas, enabling voucher-linked identifications and mapping of priority areas. These studies demonstrate that DNA barcoding is not only useful for molecular systematics, but also for prioritizing valuable ecotypes in genetic conservation strategies, especially in areas under high anthropogenic pressure.
Beyond taxonomic precision, DNA barcoding has proven effective in detecting interspecific hybridization and introgression events—phenomena common in genera with complex reproductive systems such as Vaccinium [60]. Its application reveals cryptic evolutionary relationships and allows for the discrimination of genetically divergent accessions, even when they exhibit convergent phenotypes or high morphological plasticity. This approach has also been used to map the genetic distribution of wild species and model their historical dispersion, which is key for designing adaptive conservation strategies under climate change scenarios [11,61]. Integrated with ecological, phenotypic, and remote sensing data, barcoding enhances its value by delineating evolutionary significant units (ESUs), identifying biogeographic corridors, and guiding ecosystem restoration plans [62]. Overall, this technique is a strategic resource for genetic conservation, molecular systematics, and the sustainable use of Andean native biodiversity.
Structural and functional genomics, alongside next-generation sequencing (NGS), have opened new perspectives for studying blueberries. Techniques such as genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS), restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq), and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) have been employed to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs), conduct genome-wide association studies (GWASs), detect regions under natural selection, and explore genomic evolution [38,63,64]. These technologies enable high-resolution mapping of genetic variability, the identification of candidate genes for abiotic stress tolerance, and the acceleration of selection and domestication processes for locally adapted cultivars [46].
As an example, a recent GBS-based SNP study of 123 Colombian accessions of Vaccinium meridionale revealed clear population structure among subpopulations and excess heterozygosity, indicating differentiated gene pools. These results provide actionable baselines for in situ prioritization and early domestication of native germplasm [19].
High-quality reference assemblies now serve as the basis for Vaccinium genomics. As illustrated in Figure 3, short-read platforms (e.g., Illumina) offer highly accurate variant detection and chloroplast assemblies, while long-read processes (e.g., Oxford Nanopore Technology—ONT) resolve repetitive regions and structural variants [65]. Examples of chloroplast assemblies using these technologies in native blueberries include Vaccinium floribundum [61], Vaccinium oxycoccos [63], and Vaccinium henryi [66]. However, these types of methods also enable chromosome-level and even telomere-to-telomere (T2T) assemblies [67,68,69]. Table 4 then compiles representative nuclear assemblies and strategies used across Vaccinium.
Complementing single-reference assemblies, blueberry and cranberry pangenomes provide a comparative scaffold to resolve presence/absence variation, structural variants, and candidate loci for fruit quality and stress adaptation. In Vaccinium, the pangenome spans V. corymbosum and V. macrocarpon, enabling pan-GWAS and resequencing analyses that directly support conservation and pre-breeding in native taxa by transferring gene models and synteny anchors across species [67,71,72].
Modern genomic tools have also proven fundamental for optimizing germplasm bank organization by minimizing redundancy, identifying unique accessions, and preserving adaptive or agronomic traits of interest [38]. Their integration with phenotypic, climatic, and soil data strengthens the design of both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies and supports the prioritization of resilient genotypes under climate change scenarios [11]. In the case of underutilized native species—such as those found in the montane forests of northern Peru—these technologies enable evidence-based revalorization of local biodiversity, promoting biological conservation frameworks linked to sustainable development and rural bioeconomy initiatives [62,73].

5. Future Perspectives

Environmental pressures such as climate change and habitat fragmentation demand a renewed approach to the conservation of native blueberries, integrating genomic, ecological, and participatory tools to develop adaptive, robust, and sustainable strategies [48]. This requires combining molecular diversity data—obtained through SNPs, SSRs, and NGS markers—with environmental and cultural variables specific to high-Andean and Amazonian ecosystems, thus generating evolutionarily significant conservation units (ESUs) [38,74,75].
It is strategically critical to link biotechnology (e.g., micropropagation, germplasm banks) and molecular analysis tools (e.g., barcoding, GBS, genome sequencing) with practical initiatives in the field, particularly in remote highland and Amazonian regions [20]. These areas host high levels of genetic richness yet face significant threats from deforestation and agricultural expansion. Pilot programs in Peru already combine ex situ conservation banks with community nurseries and periodic genetic monitoring [73,76], and these models could be scaled up through public policy and targeted funding for participatory conservation and local development [77].
Among emerging technologies with strong potential to enhance these efforts, landscape genomics stands out. It integrates genetic data with climatic, soil, and land-use variables to identify adaptively relevant zones for conservation or restoration [78,79,80]. Environmental transcriptomics, which captures gene expression patterns in real-world conditions, is ideal for understanding the resilience of native populations [81]. In addition, GISs (Geographic Information Systems) and remote sensing tools—such as multispectral imaging or drone mapping—can be used to trace genetic corridors and spatially monitor genetic erosion, even in inaccessible regions [82]. When coupled with predictive modeling and artificial intelligence (AI), these tools can forecast high-risk areas for genetic loss or model potential responses to future climate scenarios [53].
In this context, AI for conservation and production, machine learning, and deep learning tools are increasingly being applied in Vaccinium. UAV-based and robot-based computer vision using YOLO-style detectors supports in-field fruit detection, ripeness staging, and yield estimation; image analytics also enables early disease detection. For conservation planning, species-distribution modeling (SDM) integrates occurrence and environmental data to prioritize suitable sites and anticipate range shifts under climate change. Finally, integrating genomic selection (e.g., GBLUP and ML kernels) with field phenotypes can accelerate pre-breeding in native blueberries [83,84,85].
To ensure these future-oriented strategies are effective and sustainable, it is essential to build multidisciplinary collaborative networks involving scientists, local authorities, Indigenous communities, and public agencies [86]. Adaptive governance mechanisms, accessible funding, and local capacity building are needed to ensure that research translates beyond the laboratory into tangible benefits for rural landscapes [60]. Projects such as the Earth BioGenome Project demonstrate the value of integrating genomic data with concrete conservation and rural-development objectives [87]. In short, the future of Vaccinium spp. conservation depends on a holistic national and regional vision—one that weaves together technology, territory, local knowledge, and strategic planning.

6. Conclusions

The genetic diversity of native blueberries constitutes a key asset for food security, ecological resilience, and sustainable development in high-Andean and Amazonian regions. However, this diversity is increasingly threatened by habitat fragmentation, climate change, and anthropogenic pressures, requiring more effective, context-adapted conservation actions. In this context, biotechnological tools, such as micropropagation, cryopreservation, and genomic approaches, are strategic allies for conserving and propagating native germplasm while maintaining genetic integrity and ecological adaptability. These technologies not only increase the efficiency of ex situ conservation but also enable fine-scale genetic characterization to inform restoration and management decisions.
Advances in landscape genomics, next-generation sequencing, DNA barcoding, and multi-scale analyses (integrating molecular, phenotypic, and geospatial data) offer new opportunities to identify priority populations, model genetic diversity, and define evolutionarily significant units (ESUs). These approaches should be promoted alongside local knowledge, in situ actions, and community-based conservation strategies. The future of Vaccinium spp. conservation depends on interdisciplinary, integrative frameworks that connect science, technology, and society. Implementing regional germplasm banks, community nurseries, and genomic-monitoring platforms presents tangible opportunities to strengthen the resilience of these resources through participatory frameworks.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.S.A.-F., A.D.H.-A. and J.C.G.-A.; methodology, H.S.A.-F., A.D.H.-A. and J.C.G.-A.; investigation, H.S.A.-F., A.D.H.-A. and A.J.P.-L.; writing—original draft preparation, H.S.A.-F., A.D.H.-A. and A.J.P.-L.; writing—review and editing, J.C.G.-A.; visualization, A.D.H.-A. and A.J.P.-L.; supervision, J.C.G.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Financially supported by the project “Creación de los Servicios de Investigación, Innovación y Desarrollo de Tecnología para el Sector Agrario y Agroindustrial de la UNTRM sede Chachapoyas, Departamento de Amazonas”, C.U.I. N° 2313205 and by the Vicerrectorado de Investigación of the Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas (UNTRM).

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Uchendu, E.E.; Reed, B.M. Desiccation Tolerance and Cryopreservation of In Vitro Grown Blueberry and Cranberry Shoot Tips. Acta Hortic. 2009, 810, 567–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Salgotra, R.K.; Chauhan, B.S. Genetic Diversity, Conservation, and Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources. Genes 2023, 14, 174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Swarup, S.; Cargill, E.J.; Crosby, K.; Flagel, L.; Kniskern, J.; Glenn, K.C. Genetic Diversity Is Indispensable for Plant Breeding to Improve Crops. Crop Sci. 2021, 61, 839–852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Song, G.-Q. Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.). In Agrobacterium Protocols; Wang, K., Ed.; Methods in Molecular Biology; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2015; Volume 1224, pp. 121–131. ISBN 978-1-4939-1657-3. [Google Scholar]
  5. Nin, S.; Benelli, C.; Petrucci, W.A.; Turchi, A.; Pecchioli, S.; Gori, M.; Giordani, E. In Vitro Propagation and Conservation of Wild Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) Genotypes Collected in the Tuscan Apennines (Italy). J. Berry Res. 2019, 9, 411–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Sedlak, J.; Paprstein, F. In vitro Multiplication of Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) Cultivars. Acta Hortic. 2009, 810, 575–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Fuentes, L.; Figueroa, C.R.; Valdenegro, M.; Vinet, R. Patagonian Berries: Healthy Potential and the Path to Becoming Functional Foods. Foods 2019, 8, 289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Yavorska, N.Y.; Lobachevska, O.V.; Khorkavtsiv, Y.D.; Kyyak, N.Y. Microclonal Propagation of The Varieties of Highbush Blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum L. Biotechnol. Acta 2016, 9, 30–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bravo-Ruíz, I.N.; González-Arnao, M.T.; Hernández-Ramírez, F.; López-Domínguez, J.; Cruz-Cruz, C.A. Types of Temporary Immersion Systems Used in Commercial Plant Micropropagation. In Micropropagation Methods in Temporary Immersion Systems; Ramírez-Mosqueda, M.A., Cruz-Cruz, C.A., Eds.; Methods in Molecular Biology; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2024; Volume 2759, pp. 9–24. ISBN 978-1-0716-3653-4. [Google Scholar]
  10. Basu, A. Role of Berry Bioactive Compounds on Lipids and Lipoproteins in Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Saini, H.; Thakur, R.; Gill, R.; Tyagi, K.; Goswami, M. CRISPR/Cas9-Gene Editing Approaches in Plant Breeding. GM Crops Food 2023, 14, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Bhatt, D.S.; Debnath, S.C. Genetic Diversity of Blueberry Genotypes Estimated by Antioxidant Properties and Molecular Markers. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Cardoso, J.C.; Sheng Gerald, L.T.; Teixeira Da Silva, J.A. Micropropagation in the Twenty-First Century. In Plant Cell Culture Protocols; Loyola-Vargas, V.M., Ochoa-Alejo, N., Eds.; Methods in Molecular Biology; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2018; Volume 1815, pp. 17–46. ISBN 978-1-4939-8593-7. [Google Scholar]
  14. Allendorf, F.W. Genetics and the Conservation of Natural Populations: Allozymes to Genomes. Mol. Ecol. 2017, 26, 420–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Obsie, E.Y.; Qu, H.; Drummond, F. Wild Blueberry Yield Prediction Using a Combination of Computer Simulation and Machine Learning Algorithms. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2020, 178, 105778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Maxted, N.; Ford-Lloyd, B.V.; Hawkes, J.G. Complementary Conservation Strategies. In Plant Genetic Conservation; Maxted, N., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., Hawkes, J.G., Eds.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2000; pp. 15–39. ISBN 978-0-412-63730-8. [Google Scholar]
  17. Mengist, M.F.; Bostan, H.; Young, E.; Kay, K.L.; Gillitt, N.; Ballington, J.; Kay, C.D.; Ferruzzi, M.G.; Ashrafi, H.; Lila, M.A.; et al. High-Density Linkage Map Construction and Identification of Loci Regulating Fruit Quality Traits in Blueberry. Hortic. Res. 2021, 8, 169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Vega-Polo, P.; Cobo, M.M.; Argudo, A.; Gutierrez, B.; Rowntree, J.; De Lourdes Torres, M. Characterizing the Genetic Diversity of the Andean Blueberry (Vaccinium floribundum Kunth.) across the Ecuadorian Highlands. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0243420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Sepúlveda, J.; Rondón González, F.; Soto Sedano, J.C.; Velasco, G.P.; Mosquera, T.; Delgado, M.C.; Ligarreto Moreno, G.A.; Magnitskiy, S.; Miranda, Y.; Garzón Gutiérrez, L.N. SNP Analysis Reveals Novel Insights into the Genetic Diversity of Colombian Vaccinium meridionale. Genes 2025, 16, 675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Tineo, D.; Bustamante, D.E.; Calderon, M.S.; Huaman, E. Exploring the Diversity of Andean Berries from Northern Peru Based on Molecular Analyses. Heliyon 2022, 8, e08839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Debnath, S.C.; Bhatt, D.; Goyali, J.C. DNA-Based Molecular Markers and Antioxidant Properties to Study Genetic Diversity and Relationship Assessment in Blueberries. Agronomy 2023, 13, 1518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Arbizu, C.I.; Blas, R.H. New Proposals to Strengthen the Boom of Agriculture in Peru: Massive Use of Genetic Resources and Development of Modern Breeding Programs. Peruv. Agric. Res. 2021, 3, 35–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Schmitz, S.; Barrios, R.; Dempewolf, H.; Guarino, L.; Lusty, C.; Muir, J. Crop Diversity, Its Conservation and Use for Better Food Systems. In Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation; Von Braun, J., Afsana, K., Fresco, L.O., Hassan, M.H.A., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2023; pp. 545–552. ISBN 978-3-031-15702-8. [Google Scholar]
  24. Delgado-Paredes, G.E.; Vásquez-Díaz, C.; Esquerre-Ibañez, B.; Bazán-Sernaqué, P.; Rojas-Idrogo, C. In Vitro Tissue Culture in Plants Propagation and Germplasm Conservation of Economically Important Species in Peru. Sci. Agropecu. 2021, 12, 337–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Priyanka, V.; Kumar, R.; Dhaliwal, I.; Kaushik, P. Germplasm Conservation: Instrumental in Agricultural Biodiversity—A Review. Sustainability 2021, 13, 6743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Fernández, A.; León-Lobos, P.; Contreras, S.; Ovalle, J.F.; Sershen; Van Der Walt, K.; Ballesteros, D. The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Ex Situ Conservation Options for Recalcitrant-Seeded Species. Front. For. Glob. Change 2023, 6, 1110431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Chudetsky, A.; Rodin, S.; Zarubina, L.; Kuznetsova, I.; Tyak, G. Clonal Micropropagation and Peculiarities of Adaptation to Ex Vitro Conditions of Forest Berry Plants of the Genus Vaccinium. Food Process. Tech. Technol. 2022, 52, 570–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Bassil, N.; Bidani, A.; Nyberg, A.; Hummer, K.; Rowland, L.J. Microsatellite Markers Confirm Identity of Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) Plants in the USDA-ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository Collection. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 2020, 67, 393–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Brown, A.H.D. Core Collections: A Practical Approach to Genetic Resources Management. Genome 1989, 31, 818–824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Kotni, P.; van Hintum, T.; Maggioni, L.; Oppermann, M.; Weise, S. EURISCO Update 2023: The European Search Catalogue for Plant Genetic Resources, a Pillar for Documentation of Genebank Material. Nucleic Acids Res. 2023, 51, D1465–D1469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Odong, T.L.; Jansen, J.; Van Eeuwijk, F.A.; Van Hintum, T.J.L. Quality of Core Collections for Effective Utilisation of Genetic Resources Review, Discussion and Interpretation. Theor. Appl. Genet. 2013, 126, 289–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Lagneaux, E.; Jansen, M.; Quaedvlieg, J.; Zuidema, P.A.; Anten, N.P.R.; García Roca, M.R.; Corvera-Gomringer, R.; Kettle, C.J. Diversity Bears Fruit: Evaluating the Economic Potential of Undervalued Fruits for an Agroecological Restoration Approach in the Peruvian Amazon. Sustainability 2021, 13, 4582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Radomir, A.-M.; Stan, R.; Florea, A.; Ciobotea, C.-M.; Bănuță, F.M.; Negru, M.; Neblea, M.A.; Sumedrea, D.I. Overview of the Success of In Vitro Culture for Ex Situ Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Endemic and Subendemic Native Plants of Romania. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Ogwu, M.C.; Osawaru, M.E.; Ahana, C.M. Challenges in Conserving and Utilizing Plant Genetic Resources (PGR). Int. J. Genet. Mol. Biol. 2014, 6, 16–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Pathirana, R.; Carimi, F. Management and Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for a Sustainable Agriculture. Plants 2022, 11, 2038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Volk, G.M.; Namuth-Covert, D.; Byrne, P.F. Training in Plant Genetic Resources Management: A Way Forward. Crop Sci. 2019, 59, 853–857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Arista Bustamante, J.P.; Leiva Espinosa, S.T.; Guerrero Abad, J.C.; Collazos Silva, R. Efecto de Las Citoquininas En La Multiplicación in Vitro de Cuatro Variedades de Vaccinium corymbosum, a Partir de Segmentos Nodales Effect of Cytokinins on the in Vitro Multiplication of Four Varieties of Vaccinium corymbosum. Rev. Científica UNTRM Cienc. Nat. E Ing. 2020, 2, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Manzanero, B.R.; Kulkarni, K.P.; Vorsa, N.; Reddy, U.K.; Natarajan, P.; Elavarthi, S.; Iorizzo, M.; Melmaiee, K. Genomic and Evolutionary Relationships among Wild and Cultivated Blueberry Species. BMC Plant Biol. 2023, 23, 126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ruzić, D.; Vujović, T.; Cerović, R.; Ostrolucka, M.G.; Gajdosova, A. Micropropagation In Vitro of Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.). Acta Hortic. 2012, 2, 265–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Arencibia, A.D.; Vergara, C.; Quiroz, K.; Carrasco, B.; Bravo, C.; Garcia-Gonzales, R. An Approach for Micropropagation of Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) Plants Mediated by Temporary Immersion Bioreactors (TIBs). AJPS 2013, 04, 1022–1028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Correia, S.; Matos, M.; Leal, F. Advances in Blueberry (Vaccinium Spp.) In Vitro Culture: A Review. Horticulturae 2024, 10, 533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Rache Cardenal, L.Y.; Pacheco Maldonado, J.C. Propagación in Vitro de Plantas Adultas de Vaccinium meridionale (Ericaceae). Acta Bot. Bras. 2010, 24, 1086–1095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Jiménez-Bonilla, V.; Abdelnour-Esquivel, A. Protocolo de Micropropagación de Arándano Nativo de Costa Rica (Vaccinium consanguinium). TM 2018, 31, 146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Schuchovski, C.S.; Biasi, L.A. In Vitro Establishment of ‘Delite’ Rabbiteye Blueberry Microshoots. Horticulturae 2019, 5, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Angulo, A.B.; Castillo Matamoros, R.; Gómez-Alpízar, L. Micropropagación de Cuatro Cultivares de Arándano (Vaccinium spp.) a Partir de Segmentos Foliares de Dos Procedencias. Agron. Costarric. 2015, 39, 7–23. [Google Scholar]
  46. Ghoussaini, M.; Mountjoy, E.; Carmona, M.; Peat, G.; Schmidt, E.M.; Hercules, A.; Fumis, L.; Miranda, A.; Carvalho-Silva, D.; Buniello, A.; et al. Open Targets Genetics: Systematic Identification of Trait-Associated Genes Using Large-Scale Genetics and Functional Genomics. Nucleic Acids Res. 2021, 49, D1311–D1320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Wang, L.-Y.; Li, Y.-D.; Sun, H.-Y.; Liu, H.-G.; Tang, X.-D.; Wang, Q.-C.; Zhang, Z.-D. An Efficient Droplet-Vitrification Cryopreservation for Valuable Blueberry Germplasm. Sci. Hortic. 2017, 219, 60–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Nagel, M.; Pence, V.; Ballesteros, D.; Lambardi, M.; Popova, E.; Panis, B. Plant Cryopreservation: Principles, Applications, and Challenges of Banking Plant Diversity at Ultralow Temperatures. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2024, 75, 797–824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Roque-Borda, C.A.; Kulus, D.; Vacaro De Souza, A.; Kaviani, B.; Vicente, E.F. Cryopreservation of Agronomic Plant Germplasm Using Vitrification-Based Methods: An Overview of Selected Case Studies. IJMS 2021, 22, 6157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Gaidamashvili, M.; Khurtsidze, E.; Kutchava, T.; Lambardi, M.; Benelli, C. Efficient Protocol for Improving the Development of Cryopreserved Embryonic Axes of Chestnut (Castanea Sativa Mill.) by Encapsulation–Vitrification. Plants 2021, 10, 231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Dhungana, S.A.; Kunitake, H.; Niino, T.; Yamamoto, S.; Fukui, K.; Tanaka, D.; Maki, S.; Matsumoto, T. Cryopreservation of Blueberry Shoot Tips Derived from in Vitro and Current Shoots Using D Cryo-Plate Technique. Plant Biotechnol. 2017, 34, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Benelli, C.; Carvalho, L.S.O.; El Merzougui, S.; Petruccelli, R. Two Advanced Cryogenic Procedures for Improving Stevia Rebaudiana (Bertoni) Cryopreservation. Plants 2021, 10, 277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Fu, Y.-B. Assessing Genetic Distinctness and Redundancy of Plant Germplasm Conserved Ex Situ Based on Published Genomic SNP Data. Plants 2023, 12, 1476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Zhang, F.; Ji, S.; Wei, B.; Cheng, S.; Wang, Y.; Hao, J.; Wang, S.; Zhou, Q. Transcriptome Analysis of Postharvest Blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum ‘Duke’) in Response to Cold Stress. BMC Plant Biol. 2020, 20, 80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Smrke, T.; Veberic, R.; Hudina, M.; Zitko, V.; Ferlan, M.; Jakopic, J. Fruit Quality and Yield of Three Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) Cultivars Grown in Two Planting Systems under Different Protected Environments. Horticulturae 2021, 7, 591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Bell, D.J.; Rowland, L.J.; Polashock, J.J.; Drummond, F.A. Suitability of EST-PCR Markers Developed in Highbush Blueberry for Genetic Fingerprinting and Relationship Studies in Lowbush Blueberry and Related Species. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 2008, 133, 701–707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Carvalho, M.; Matos, M.; Crespí, A.; Lopes, V.R.; Carnide, V. Genetic Diversity and Identification of Vaccinium Species Through Microsatellite Analysis. Plants 2024, 13, 3488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Yang, H.; Chen, J.; Wang, Y.; Tian, X.; Zheng, Y.; Jin, Z.; Hao, J.; Xue, Y.; Ding, S.; Zong, C. Determination of the Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Vaccinium Uliginosum in Northeast China Based on the Chloroplast matK Gene and EST-SSRseq Molecular Markers. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 2024, 71, 1035–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Beers, L.; Rowland, L.J.; Drummond, F. Genetic Diversity of Lowbush Blueberry throughout the United States in Managed and Non-Managed Populations. Agriculture 2019, 9, 113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Toth, K.; Salo, H.M.; Kinnunen, S.; Miettunen, T.-M.; Alakärppä, E.; Suokas, M.; Benevenuto, J.; Munoz, P.; Häggman, H.; Jokipii-Lukkari, S. DNA Extraction Optimization and Authentication of Vaccinium Berries and Their Products by High-Resolution DNA Melting Analysis. Food Control 2024, 162, 110432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. López, K.E.R.; Armijos, C.E.; Parra, M.; Torres, M.D.L. The First Complete Chloroplast Genome Sequence of Mortiño (Vaccinium floribundum) and Comparative Analyses with Other Vaccinium Species. Horticulturae 2023, 9, 302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Manzoor, I.; Samantara, K.; Bhat, M.S.; Farooq, I.; Bhat, K.M.; Mir, M.A.; Wani, S.H. Advances in Genomics for Diversity Studies and Trait Improvement in Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops under Changing Climatic Scenarios. Front. Plant Sci. 2023, 13, 1048217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Fahrenkrog, A.M.; Matsumoto, G.; Toth, K.; Jokipii-Lukkari, S.; Salo, H.M.; Häggman, H.; Benevenuto, J.; Munoz, P. Chloroplast Genome Assemblies and Comparative Analyses of Major Vaccinium Berry Crops. bioRxiv 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Qiao, X.; Gu, Q.; Ye, R.; Cai, J.; Zhu, N. The Complete Chloroplast Genome of Vaccinium oxycoccos (Ericaceae). Mitochondrial DNA Part B 2023, 8, 942–947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Pucker, B.; Irisarri, I.; De Vries, J.; Xu, B. Plant Genome Sequence Assembly in the Era of Long Reads: Progress, Challenges and Future Directions. Quant. Plant Biol. 2022, 3, e5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Ge, C.; Dong, G.; Jiang, Y.; Tian, L.; Yu, H.; Zeng, Q. The Complete Chloroplast Genome of Vaccinium henryi Hemsl. 1889 (Ericaceae). Mitochondrial DNA Part B 2025, 10, 37–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Colle, M.; Leisner, C.P.; Wai, C.M.; Ou, S.; Bird, K.A.; Wang, J.; Wisecaver, J.H.; Yocca, A.E.; Alger, E.I.; Tang, H.; et al. Haplotype-Phased Genome and Evolution of Phytonutrient Pathways of Tetraploid Blueberry. GigaScience 2019, 8, giz012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Yu, J.; Hulse-Kemp, A.M.; Babiker, E.; Staton, M. High-Quality Reference Genome and Annotation Aids Understanding of Berry Development for Evergreen Blueberry (Vaccinium darrowii). Hortic. Res. 2021, 8, 228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Zeng, T.; He, Z.; He, J.; Lv, W.; Huang, S.; Li, J.; Zhu, L.; Wan, S.; Zhou, W.; Yang, Z.; et al. The Telomere-to-Telomere Gap-Free Reference Genome of Wild Blueberry (Vaccinium duclouxii) Provides Its High Soluble Sugar and Anthocyanin Accumulation. Hortic. Res. 2023, 10, uhad209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Albuja-Quintana, M.; Pozo, G.; Gordillo-Romero, M.; Armijos, C.E.; Torres, M.D.L. Genome Report: First Reference Genome of Vaccinium floribundum Kunth, an Emblematic Andean Species. G3: Genes Genomes Genet. 2024, 14, jkae136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  71. Diaz-Garcia, L.; Garcia-Ortega, L.F.; González-Rodríguez, M.; Delaye, L.; Iorizzo, M.; Zalapa, J. Chromosome-Level Genome Assembly of the American Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.) and Its Wild Relative Vaccinium microcarpum. Front. Plant Sci. 2021, 12, 633310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Yocca, A.E.; Platts, A.; Alger, E.; Teresi, S.; Mengist, M.F.; Benevenuto, J.; Ferrão, L.F.V.; Jacobs, M.; Babinski, M.; Magallanes-Lundback, M.; et al. Blueberry and Cranberry Pangenomes as a Resource for Future Genetic Studies and Breeding Efforts. Hortic. Res. 2023, 10, uhad202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. López, J.O.S. Caracterización de la Diversidad Genética del Arándano e Identificación de Zonas Potenciales Para Su Cultivo en la Provincia de Chachapoyas, Amazonas; Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodriguez de Mendoza: Chachapoyas, Amazonas, Peru, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  74. Frankham, R. Stress and Adaptation in Conservation Genetics. J. Evol. Biol. 2005, 18, 750–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Stange, M.; Barrett, R.D.H.; Hendry, A.P. The Importance of Genomic Variation for Biodiversity, Ecosystems and People. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2021, 22, 89–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Amancah, E.; Mercado, W.; Gómez-Pando, L.; Escalante, R.; Sotomayor, D.A. Integrating in Situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources with Ex Situ Conservation Management: Involving Custodian Farmers, Benefits and Their Willingness to Accept Compensation. Sci. Agropecu. 2023, 14, 447–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Silvestri, L.C. Conservación de La Diversidad Genética En El Perú: Desafíos En La Implementación Del Régimen de Acceso a Recursos Genéticos y Distribución de Beneficios. Rev. Peru. De Biol. 2016, 23, 73–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Dauphin, B.; Rellstab, C.; Wüest, R.O.; Karger, D.N.; Holderegger, R.; Gugerli, F.; Manel, S. Re-Thinking the Environment in Landscape Genomics. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2023, 38, 261–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Feng, W.-K.; Wang, C.-H.; Ju, Y.-W.; Chen, Z.-X.; Wu, X.; Fang, D.-L. Identifying the Biological Characteristics of Anthracnose Pathogens of Blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) in China. Forests 2024, 15, 117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Rellstab, C.; Gugerli, F.; Eckert, A.J.; Hancock, A.M.; Holderegger, R. A Practical Guide to Environmental Association Analysis in Landscape Genomics. Mol. Ecol. 2015, 24, 4348–4370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Dykes, J.; Kappenman, K.; Nissen, E.D. Using DNA Barcoding Methods to Identify Wild Huckleberry, Vaccinium membranaceum, as a Classroom Project. Am. Biol. Teach. 2022, 84, 40–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Ensslin, A.; Tschöpe, O.; Burkart, M.; Joshi, J. Fitness Decline and Adaptation to Novel Environments in Ex Situ Plant Collections: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives. Biol. Conserv. 2015, 192, 394–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Liu, M.; Zhang, Z.; Xu, Z.; Wang, L.; Chen, C.; Ren, Z. Overexpression of SlMYB75 Enhances Resistance to Botrytis Cinerea and Prolongs Fruit Storage Life in Tomato. Plant Cell Rep. 2021, 40, 43–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Davis, A.J.S.; Groom, Q.; Adriaens, T.; Vanderhoeven, S.; De Troch, R.; Oldoni, D.; Desmet, P.; Reyserhove, L.; Lens, L.; Strubbe, D. Reproducible WiSDM: A Workflow for Reproducible Invasive Alien Species Risk Maps under Climate Change Scenarios Using Standardized Open Data. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2024, 12, 1148895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Ferrão, L.F.V.; Amadeu, R.R.; Benevenuto, J.; De Bem Oliveira, I.; Munoz, P.R. Genomic Selection in an Outcrossing Autotetraploid Fruit Crop: Lessons from Blueberry Breeding. Front. Plant Sci. 2021, 12, 676326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Wang, D.G.; Fan, J.-B.; Siao, C.-J.; Berno, A.; Young, P.; Sapolsky, R.; Ghandour, G.; Perkins, N.; Winchester, E.; Spencer, J.; et al. Large-Scale Identification, Mapping, and Genotyping of Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms in the Human Genome. Science 1998, 280, 1077–1082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. Lawniczak, M.K.N.; Durbin, R.; Flicek, P.; Lindblad-Toh, K.; Wei, X.; Archibald, J.M.; Baker, W.J.; Belov, K.; Blaxter, M.L.; Marques Bonet, T.; et al. Standards Recommendations for the Earth BioGenome Project. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2022, 119, e2115639118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ijpb 16 00109 g001
Figure 1. Schematic representation of explants used for in vitro culture in Vaccinium spp., including leaves, roots, shoot tips, embryos, anthers, protoplasts, callus, and cell suspensions.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of explants used for in vitro culture in Vaccinium spp., including leaves, roots, shoot tips, embryos, anthers, protoplasts, callus, and cell suspensions.
Ijpb 16 00109 g001
Ijpb 16 00109 g002
Figure 2. DNA barcoding as a molecular identification tool in native blueberry species enables the discrimination of closely related taxa, the detection of hybridization and introgression, and the delineation of taxonomic/evolutionary units for conservation. Validated identifications are subsequently used to elaborate a nucleus collection from verified accessions, strengthening ex situ and pre-breeding resources.
Figure 2. DNA barcoding as a molecular identification tool in native blueberry species enables the discrimination of closely related taxa, the detection of hybridization and introgression, and the delineation of taxonomic/evolutionary units for conservation. Validated identifications are subsequently used to elaborate a nucleus collection from verified accessions, strengthening ex situ and pre-breeding resources.
Ijpb 16 00109 g002
Ijpb 16 00109 g003
Figure 3. Next-generation sequencing technologies applied to plant genome assembly: comparison between short-read and long-read platforms for chloroplast and nuclear genome studies in Vaccinium spp. Short-read platforms (e.g., Illumina) offer high accuracy for base calling and are ideal for variant detection and small genome assembly. Long-read technologies (e.g., Nanopore) enable the resolution of repetitive regions, structural variants, and full-length genome assembly with fewer contigs, which is critical for reconstructing complex organellar and nuclear genomes.
Figure 3. Next-generation sequencing technologies applied to plant genome assembly: comparison between short-read and long-read platforms for chloroplast and nuclear genome studies in Vaccinium spp. Short-read platforms (e.g., Illumina) offer high accuracy for base calling and are ideal for variant detection and small genome assembly. Long-read technologies (e.g., Nanopore) enable the resolution of repetitive regions, structural variants, and full-length genome assembly with fewer contigs, which is critical for reconstructing complex organellar and nuclear genomes.
Ijpb 16 00109 g003
Table 1. In vitro micropropagation protocols in blueberry species: explants, regeneration mode, and culture medium with effective hormone combinations.
Table 1. In vitro micropropagation protocols in blueberry species: explants, regeneration mode, and culture medium with effective hormone combinations.
No.SpeciesExplantRegeneration ModePGRs + MediumReference
1Vaccinium virgatum (Delite Rabbiteye)Shoot nodal segmentsShoot proliferationZeatin and 2-iP (2.5–50 µM), WPM medium[44]
2Vaccinium corymbosum L. (Biloxi, Sharp Blue, Brillita)Young cuttings and nodal segmentsShoot proliferation using TIBs2-iP (2–3 mg/L), low sucrose, WPM + CO2 enrichment[40]
3Vaccinium consanguineum (native to Costa Rica)Semi-lignified stems and seedsShoot proliferation6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) (0–20 mg/L), Zeatin (0–0.5 mg/L), 50% WPM[43]
4Vaccinium meridionaleShoot apexShoot proliferationBAP (0–20 mg/L), Zeatin (0–0.5 mg/L), 50% WPM[42]
5Vaccinium spp. (Sharpblue, Woodard, Bonita, Delite)Leaf segments from in vitro and field plantsShoot proliferation and rootingThidiazuron (TDZ) (1.5 mg/L), Zeatin (0.5–1 mg/L), IBA (0–8 mg/L), WPM[45]
6Vaccinium meridionale (Mortiño)Mini-cuttingsShoot proliferation and rooting2-iP (5 mg/L) for proliferation; IBA (2000 µM) for rooting, WPM[39]
7Vaccinium corymbosum (Blue Suede)Shoot segmentsBioreactor-based micropropagation2-iP (3–5 mg/L), Zeatin (2 mg/L), WPM[10]
Table 2. Cryopreservation methods applied to blueberry species using shoot tips: tissue type, cryotechnique, and key findings.
Table 2. Cryopreservation methods applied to blueberry species using shoot tips: tissue type, cryotechnique, and key findings.
No.SpeciesCryopreservation MethodFindingsReference
1Vaccinium corymbosum (cv. Duke)D cryo-plate + 0.3 M sucrose pretreatment and loading solution (LS)Significant increase in regeneration (~90%) with pretreatment and LS[47]
2Vaccinium spp. (various cultivars)V cryo-plateImproved regrowth with V cryo-plate and optimized dehydration[49]
3Vaccinium corymbosum (cv. Duke)Encapsulation-dehydrationHigh regeneration rate (>80%) after cryopreservation; desiccation tolerance up to 7 h.[1]
4Vaccinium corymbosum L. (cv. Tifblue)Modern vitrification and encapsulation80–90% regeneration with optimized vitrification techniques[51]
5Vaccinium corymbosum L. (cv. North Blue)Droplet vitrification for long-term storage>90% viability using droplet vitrification method[52]
Table 3. Applications of molecular markers in the genetic characterization of blueberry species.
Table 3. Applications of molecular markers in the genetic characterization of blueberry species.
No.SpeciesMolecular MarkersFindings/EffectsReference
1Vaccinium asheiSSRCross-species transferability, cultivar/population and species identification in blueberries[57]
2Vaccinium myrtillusSSRCross-species transferability, cultivar/population and species identification in blueberries[57]
3Vaccinium floribundumSSRPopulation structure associated with the geological history of the Andean region[18]
4Vaccinium uliginosumEST-SSR, SSRSmall amount of genetic exchange between these subgroups[58]
5Vaccinium angustifoliumEST-PCRHigh genetic diversity[59]
Table 4. High-quality genome assemblies in Vaccinium spp.: assembly level, strategy, and sequencing platforms.
Table 4. High-quality genome assemblies in Vaccinium spp.: assembly level, strategy, and sequencing platforms.
No.SpeciesGenome Type & Assembly LevelAssembly StrategySequencing Platform(s)Reference
1Vaccinium corymbosum (cv. Draper)Nuclear—Chromosome-level (haplotype-phased)Long-read assembly + Hi-C scaffoldingONT/PacBio + Hi-C[67]
2Vaccinium darrowiiNuclear—Chromosome-levelLong-read assembly + Hi-CONT + Hi-C[68]
3Vaccinium duclouxiiNuclear—T2T, gap-freeUltra-long reads + Hi-C/HiFiONT UL + Hi-C (+HiFi)[69]
4Vaccinium floribundumNuclear—High-quality referenceLong/short-read hybrid + Hi-CIllumina/Hi-C[70]
5Vaccinium macrocarponNuclear—Chromosome-levelLong-/short-read + scaffoldingPacBio/Illumina[71]
T2T = telomere-to-telomere; ONT = Oxford Nanopore Technologies; Hi-C = proximity ligation scaffolding; HiFi = PacBio high-fidelity.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Arista-Fernández, H.S.; Hernández-Amasifuen, A.D.; Pineda-Lázaro, A.J.; Guerrero-Abad, J.C. Biotechnological and Genomic Applications in the Conservation of Native Blueberries in Natural Habitats. Int. J. Plant Biol. 2025, 16, 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijpb16030109

AMA Style

Arista-Fernández HS, Hernández-Amasifuen AD, Pineda-Lázaro AJ, Guerrero-Abad JC. Biotechnological and Genomic Applications in the Conservation of Native Blueberries in Natural Habitats. International Journal of Plant Biology. 2025; 16(3):109. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijpb16030109

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arista-Fernández, Héctor Stalin, Angel David Hernández-Amasifuen, Alexandra Jherina Pineda-Lázaro, and Juan Carlos Guerrero-Abad. 2025. "Biotechnological and Genomic Applications in the Conservation of Native Blueberries in Natural Habitats" International Journal of Plant Biology 16, no. 3: 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijpb16030109

APA Style

Arista-Fernández, H. S., Hernández-Amasifuen, A. D., Pineda-Lázaro, A. J., & Guerrero-Abad, J. C. (2025). Biotechnological and Genomic Applications in the Conservation of Native Blueberries in Natural Habitats. International Journal of Plant Biology, 16(3), 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijpb16030109

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop