How to Cross the Chasm for the Electric Vehicle World’s Laggards—A Case Study in Kuwait
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (i)
- To identify the preferences of EV early majority/pragmatic consumers in Kuwait, as perceived by conventional ICE car drivers;
- (ii)
- To examine the influence of several selected demographic variables on preferences of early majority/pragmatic consumers, which might sway them to switch over from ICE vehicles to EVs, thus creating a mass market for EVs in Kuwait.
2. Problem Statement and Significance: Highest EV Adopters vs. the Lowest Ones
- 1.
- Absence of fast-charging and powerful EV public charging stations that rely on 300 kW Direct Current (DC to DC), which could charge the most popular large-battery EVs in Kuwait to an 80% charge in about 20 min [26].
- 2.
- The reluctance of Kuwaiti landlords (as ex-pats are not permitted to own real estate by law in the State of Kuwait) to allow ex-pat-owners of EVs to install fast-charging 11 kW EV amplifier wall-boxes in or around their rented apartments, which could reduce the charging-time from up to 48 h for the biggest batteries down to only 5–10 h.
- 3.
- The State of Kuwait subsidizes petrol for its residents and, as a result, has one of the world’s lowest retail gasoline prices (at USD 0.34 per liter). In comparison, one liter of retail petrol costs just over USD 2 (almost six times more) in Norway [27].
- 4.
- Neither the State of Kuwait nor its municipalities offer financial incentives to buy or own EVs instead of ICE cars. In comparison, Norway offers a long list of incentives, including
- a.
- Import and value-added tax exceptions from the purchasing price;
- b.
- Road tax exceptions;
- c.
- Ferry and toll-road fee exceptions;
- d.
- Permission to drive EVs on designated fast lanes for buses;
- e.
- Free municipal parking.
- 5.
- The lack of an EV community and exposure, stemming from the low number of EVs on the streets, indicate that EVs have not yet “crossed the chasm” in Kuwait—a term used for a disruptive innovation in which a certain type of technology eventually takes over the existing one [28]. The main hurdle is when the market is dominated by an early niche market made up of “innovators and techies” on the one hand, along with “visionaries and early adopters,” while the market has not yet reached the “early-majority or the pragmatists.” The reasons for this inability to reach the mass market can be explained by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), which provides two explanations: “the lack of perceived usefulness” along with “the unease of use” [29]. Our study supports this theory, as the most commonly sold EV in 2021 in Kuwait was the Porsche Taycan EV for approximately USD 200,000. This was bought primarily as the third or fourth car by affluent Kuwaiti males in their fifties and sixties as a status symbol rather than as a primary mode of transport. According to a dealership interview, the benefit of ownership for buyers was not primarily environmental but rather to be significantly faster than supercars such as those of Ferrari, Lamborghini, and so on, as the gearless EV powertrain allows for acceleration which no ICE car can compete with [3].
- 6.
- Potential EV drivers have apprehension as to how many years the battery will last in the extreme heat of Kuwait, as many have witnessed their cell phones automatically shutting down outside or inside of a car due to heat exposure. Generally, there is an 8-year guarantee on the battery (or about 150,000 km driven). The average life of an ICE car is 12–13 years, about 5 years longer than the EV battery warranty lasts. As a new EV car battery in the ninth year might cost more than the market value of the car at that time, replacing the battery might not be deemed worth the money. Thus, the life of the battery might dictate the life of the car. With potentially 30–40% less lifetime, rapid depreciation might represent the highest cost of ownership to EV owners. Luckily, KISR—the National Laboratory of Kuwait—has researched this phenomenon and has and will continue to publish data that will hopefully appease the concerns of consumers regarding this issue.
- 7.
- The almost total lack of maintenance, due to EVs only having 20 moving parts vs. up to 2000 in ICE cars, can actually pose a problem. EV owners complain that because EVs do not need as much maintenance, dealerships are reluctant to build up technical capacity or parts inventories. For example, Tesla does not even have a dealership in Kuwait, as all updates and inspections are conducted online. Such a lack of facilities has proven problematic in the case of accidents or other mishaps [3].
- 8.
- EV owners have pointed out that the ground clearance of the car is especially important for EVs in Kuwait (i.e., the distance from the lowest point of the car to the ground). High speedbumps in residential areas aiming to keep out low-riding power cars are a problem, as they may damage the battery at the bottom of the EV.
- 9.
- Some efforts have been made by municipalities, shopping centers, and transportation authorities to have designated parking spaces with or without charging facilities. However, as no penalty is typically levied on ICE car drivers—in contrast to those who park in handicapped parking spaces—virtually all EV owners we talked to complained that the designated parking was not respected as exclusive to EVs.
- 10.
- Although farfetched, there is a moderate to strong correlation when comparing the percentage of women in national congresses worldwide, and the percentage of EVs sold that year. For example, the national parliament in Norway is represented by 46% women, with 9 out of 19 ministers being women. The Kuwait parliament, on the other hand, only has 2 women out of 50 seats and 1 woman out of 12 ministers. Several studies conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), among others, have demonstrated that women in power demonstrate more environmental concern than their male counterparts. This ratio might explain, in part, why the State of Kuwait has been slower than Norway to provide a support system for EV adoption [4].
3. Literature Review
4. Data Collection and Methodology
4.1. Research Instrument
4.2. Sampling Procedures and Size
4.3. Data Collection Procedure
4.4. Statistical Analysis
4.5. Data Analysis and Findings
- High agreement: Calculated mean (M ≥ 3.5);
- Medium agreement: Calculated mean (2.5 ≥ M < 3.5);
- Low agreement: Calculated mean (M < 2.5)
5. Discussion
6. Limitations and Future Studies
7. Conclusions and Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Types of Attributes | Industrialized Countries (Global North) | Developing Countries (Global South Excluding MENA Region) | MENA Region (Arab World) |
---|---|---|---|
Financial or economical attributes | Archsmith et al. (2021) [50], Mandys (2021) [51], Guerra and Daziano (2020) [52] Miranada and Delgado (2020) [53], Higueras-Castillo et al. (2019) [54], Rietmann and Lieven (2019) [55], Kowalska-Pyzalska et al. (2021–22) [56,57] | De Oliveira et al. (2022) [58], Lashari et al. (2021) [59], Dasharathraj et al. (2020) [60], Colak and Kaya (2020) [61], Li et al. (2020) [62], Bhalla et al. (2018) [63], Zhang et al. (2018) [64] | Eneizan (2019, Jordan) [65] |
Technological attributes | Mandys (2021) [51], Archsmith et al. (2021), [50], Higueras-Castillo et al. (2019) [54] | De Oliveira et al. (2022) [58], Kim et al. (2022) [66] Ho and Huang (2022) [67], Kowalska-Pyzalska et al. (2021–22) [56,57], Kongklaew et al. (2021) [68], Khurana et al. (2020) [69], Colak and Kaya (2020) [61], Khurana et al. (2020) [70], Dasharathraj et al. (2020) [60], Haider et al. (2019) [70] | Hamwi (2022, Kuwait) [24,25] |
Infrastructure attributes | Archsmith et al. (2021) [50], Miranada and Delgado (2020) [53], Guerra and Daziano (2020) [52], Rietmann and Lieven (2019) [55], Ottesen and Banna (2018) [71], Hardman et al. (2018) [72] | Kim et al. (2022) [66], De Oliveira et al. (2022) [58], Kongklaew et al. (2021) [68], Khurana et al. (2020) [70], Bhaskar et al. (2020) [73], Haider et al. (2019) [70], Bhalla et al. (2018) [63] | Shareeda et al. (2021, Bahrain) [74], Jreige et al. (2021, Lebanon) [75] |
Social and environmental attributes | Archsmith et al. (2021) [50], Higueras-Castillo et al. (2020) [54], Miranada and Delgado (2020) [53], Vilchez et al. (2019) [76], Rietmann and Lieven (2019) [55] | Fan and Chen (2022) [77], Kim et al. (2022) [66], De Oliveira et al. (2022) [58], Dasharathraj et al. (2020) [60], Colak and Kaya (2020) [61], Haider et al. (2019) [70], Lin and Wu (2018) [78], Zhang et al. (2018) [35] | Al-Buenain et al. (2021, Qatar) [79], Shareeda et al. (2021, Bahrain), [74], Eneizan (2019, Jordan), [65] |
Brand attributes | Kowalska-Pyzalska et al. (2021–22) [56,57] | Vongurai (2020) [80], Dasharathraj et al. [60] |
Variable | Categories | N = 472 | % |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 238 | 50.4% |
Female | 234 | 49.6% | |
Age Range | 18–25 years | 168 | 35.6% |
26–39 years | 222 | 47.0% | |
40–49 years | 61 | 12.9% | |
50–60 years | 21 | 4.4% | |
Marital Status | Single | 272 | 57.6% |
Married without kids | 37 | 7.8% | |
Married with 1 kid | 35 | 7.4% | |
Married with 2 kids | 42 | 8.9% | |
Married with 3 kids or more | 86 | 18.2% | |
Ethnicity | Kuwaiti | 287 | 60.8% |
Arab Non-Kuwaiti | 144 | 30.5% | |
Asian Non-Arab | 38 | 8.1% | |
American, European, or Australian | 2 | 0.4% | |
African Non-Arab | 1 | 0.2% | |
Number of Cars in household | One car | 62 | 13.1% |
Two cars | 139 | 29.4% | |
Three cars | 70 | 14.8% | |
Four cars | 66 | 14.0% | |
Five cars or more | 135 | 28.6% | |
Educational Level | Less than high school | 8 | 1.7% |
High School diploma | 108 | 22.9% | |
Trade/Commerce degree | 55 | 11.7% | |
Bachelor’s degree | 259 | 54.9% | |
Master’s degree | 31 | 6.6% | |
PhD | 11 | 2.3% | |
Employment | Private sector | 176 | 37.3% |
Public sector | 152 | 32.2% | |
Unemployed | 83 | 17.6% | |
Self-employed | 35 | 7.4% | |
Family-owned business | 26 | 5.5% | |
Field of employment | Other private services | 139 | 29.4% |
Government and Ministries | 125 | 26.5% | |
Family business | 61 | 12.9% | |
Education—government or private | 46 | 9.7% | |
Oil and Gas sector | 32 | 6.8% | |
Large Kuwaiti corporation | 29 | 6.1% | |
Health Care—government or private | 26 | 5.5% | |
Military or police | 14 | 3.0% | |
Which of the following best describes your role in industry? | Middle Management | 102 | 21.6% |
Administrative Staff | 80 | 16.9% | |
Upper Management | 59 | 12.5% | |
Student—Not working | 54 | 11.4% | |
Lower Management | 38 | 8.1% | |
Support Staff | 34 | 7.2% | |
Temporary Employee | 28 | 5.9% | |
Self-employed/Business Partner | 27 | 5.7% | |
Trained Professional expert | 22 | 4.7% | |
Researcher | 12 | 2.5% | |
Consultant | 8 | 1.7% | |
Skilled Laborer | 8 | 1.7% | |
Monthly Income | Less than KWD 500 (USD 1650) | 149 | 31.6% |
KWD 500–999 | 104 | 22.0% | |
KWD 1000–1499 | 111 | 23.5% | |
KWD 1500–1999 | 59 | 12.5% | |
KWD 2000 and above (USD 6600) | 49 | 10.4% |
Type of Attribute (Features) | To What Extent You Agree/Disagree about the Most Favorable Features of EV? | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|
Social attributes—pro-environmental | Environmental friendliness, less CO2 that leads to better air quality | 3.74 | 1.308 |
Financial/economic attributes | Much lower fuel price than gasoline | 3.54 | 1.279 |
Technological attributes | Soundless engine | 3.52 | 1.305 |
Technological attributes | Increased safety in terms of fire and crash tests | 3.49 | 1.305 |
Technological attributes | Faster and more powerful air conditioning | 3.46 | 1.246 |
Technological attributes | Much faster acceleration (from 0 to 100 km) | 3.32 | 1.236 |
Financial/economic attributes | Much lower maintenance and associated cost | 3.24 | 1.311 |
Types of Attributes (Features) | I Would Buy an EV if … | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|
Financial/economic attributes | If the guarantee of the battery lasted at least 10 years or 150,000 km | 3.54 | 1.189 |
Infrastructure attributes | If there was a fast-charging station within 5 km from almost every place in Kuwait | 3.51 | 1.193 |
Social attributes—pro-environmental | If I start to see noticeable change in air quality because people are driving EVs | 3.47 | 1.162 |
Technological attributes | If the range (how far you can drive) per full charge would be at least 400 km | 3.47 | 1.160 |
Brand attribute | If they were cool and unique design | 3.43 | 1.217 |
Financial/economic attributes | The price was same or lower than equivalent gasoline car | 3.39 | 1.287 |
Financial/economic attributes | If the reselling value was equivalent or higher than gasoline car | 3.39 | 1.164 |
Financial/economic attributes | If gasoline prices increased three-fold | 3.33 | 1.220 |
Infrastructure attributes | There was a special EV lane on major highways such as highway 30 and 40 | 3.27 | 1.165 |
Social attributes—social acceptance | If most of my friends or family bought an EV | 2.97 | 1.152 |
Variables | Categories (N) | The Highly Preferred Favorable Features of EVs | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Environmental Friendliness, Less CO2 and Sod That Lead to Better Air Quality | Much Lower Fuel Price than Gasoline | Soundless Engine | ||
Mean | Mean | Mean | ||
Gender | Male (N = 238) | 3.79 | 3.63 | 3.61 |
Female (N = 234) | 3.70 | 3.46 | 3.42 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.482 | 0.163 | 0.113 | |
Marital Status | Single (N = 272) | 3.69 | 3.57 | 3.43 |
Married (N = 200) | 3.82 | 3.51 | 3.64 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.277 | 0.668 | 0.084 | |
Ethnicity | Kuwaiti (N = 287) | 3.73 | 3.56 | 3.57 |
Non-Kuwaiti (N = 185) | 3.76 | 3.52 | 3.43 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.805 | 0.728 | 0.247 | |
Number of cars | One to Two cars (N = 201) | 3.91 | 3.65 | 3.68 |
Three cars or more (N = 271) | 3.62 | 3.46 | 3.40 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.020 | 0.117 | 0.024 | |
Age Range | 18–25 years (N = 168) | 3.67 | 3.49 | 3.40 |
26–39 years (N = 222) | 3.75 | 3.55 | 3.55 | |
40–60 years (N = 82) | 3.89 | 3.65 | 3.67 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.447 | 0.655 | 0.260 | |
Education | Less than high school (N = 8) | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 |
High School diploma (N = 108) | 3.83 | 3.67 | 3.44 | |
Trade/Commerce degree (N = 55) | 3.38 | 3.31 | 3.15 | |
Bachelor’s degree (N = 259) | 3.78 | 3.56 | 3.65 | |
Master’s degree (N = 31) | 4.00 | 3.55 | 3.55 | |
Ph.D. (N = 11) | 3.64 | 3.64 | 3.36 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.118 | 0.499 | 0.104 | |
Monthly Income | Less than KD 500 (N = 149) | 3.61 | 3.45 | 3.34 |
KD 500–999 (N = 104) | 3.75 | 3.53 | 3.52 | |
KD 1000–1499 (N = 111) | 3.89 | 3.77 | 3.74 | |
KD 1500 and above (N = 108) | 3.77 | 3.46 | 3.55 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.392 | 0.204 | 0.105 | |
Employment | Self-employed (N = 35) | 3.77 | 3.69 | 3.46 |
Family-owned business (N = 26) | 2.81 | 2.81 | 2.77 | |
Private sector (N = 176) | 3.81 | 3.63 | 3.58 | |
Public sector (N = 152) | 3.91 | 3.69 | 3.68 | |
Unemployed (N = 83) | 3.58 | 3.28 | 3.35 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.011 |
Variables | Categories (N) | I Would Buy an EV if … | |
---|---|---|---|
If the Guarantee of the Battery Would Last as Least 10 Years or 150.000 km | If There Was a Fast-Charging Station Within 5 km from Almost Every Place in Kuwait | ||
Mean | Mean | ||
Gender | Male (N = 238) | 3.57 | 3.51 |
Female (N = 234) | 3.51 | 3.51 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.592 | 0.998 | |
Marital Status | Single (N = 272) | 3.55 | 3.53 |
Married (N = 200) | 3.53 | 3.48 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.837 | 0.666 | |
Ethnicity | Kuwaiti (N = 287) | 3.60 | 3.58 |
Non-Kuwaiti (N = 185) | 3.45 | 3.41 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.189 | 0.136 | |
Number of cars | One to Two cars (N = 201) | 3.56 | 3.56 |
Three cars or more (N = 271) | 3.52 | 3.48 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.705 | 0.486 | |
Age Range | 18–25 years (N = 168) | 3.53 | 3.55 |
26–39 years (N = 222) | 3.48 | 3.42 | |
40–60 years (N = 82) | 3.72 | 3.68 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.288 | 0.198 | |
Education | Less than high school (N = 8) | 2.63 | 2.13 |
High School diploma (N = 108) | 3.41 | 3.64 | |
Trade/Commerce degree (N = 55) | 3.55 | 3.36 | |
Bachelor’s degree (N = 259) | 3.60 | 3.47 | |
Master’s degree (N = 31) | 3.68 | 3.81 | |
PhD (N = 11) | 3.64 | 4.18 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.206 | 0.002 | |
Monthly Income | Less than KD 500 (N = 149) | 3.44 | 3.43 |
KD 500–999 (N = 104) | 3.33 | 3.30 | |
KD 1000–1499 (N = 111) | 3.81 | 3.82 | |
KD 1500 and above (N = 108) | 3.60 | 3.52 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.014 | 0.009 | |
Employment | Self-employed (N = 35) | 3.40 | 3.34 |
Family-owned business (N = 26) | 3.00 | 3.12 | |
Private sector (N = 176) | 3.56 | 3.52 | |
Public sector (N = 152) | 3.64 | 3.66 | |
Unemployed (N = 83) | 3.52 | 3.42 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.129 | 0.162 |
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Ottesen, A.; Banna, S.; Alzougool, B. How to Cross the Chasm for the Electric Vehicle World’s Laggards—A Case Study in Kuwait. World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14020045
Ottesen A, Banna S, Alzougool B. How to Cross the Chasm for the Electric Vehicle World’s Laggards—A Case Study in Kuwait. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2023; 14(2):45. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14020045
Chicago/Turabian StyleOttesen, Andri, Sumayya Banna, and Basil Alzougool. 2023. "How to Cross the Chasm for the Electric Vehicle World’s Laggards—A Case Study in Kuwait" World Electric Vehicle Journal 14, no. 2: 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14020045