Optical Methods for Non-Invasive Determination of Skin Penetration: Current Trends, Advances, Possibilities, Prospects, and Translation into In Vivo Human Studies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Skin Barrier Function and Penetration Pathways
3. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM)
3.1. CLSM in Skin Morphology Imaging
3.2. Fluorescence CLSM (FCLSM)—Skin Penetration Studies
3.3. Reflectance CLSM (RCLSM)—Skin Penetration Studies
3.4. CLSM—Advantages, Limitations, and Applied Substance Requirements
4. Multi-Photon Tomography (MPT)
4.1. Two-Photon Tomography (2PT) in Skin Morphology Imaging
4.2. 2PT-AF—Skin Penetration Studies
4.3. 2PT-FLIM—Skin Penetration Studies
4.4. SHG—Skin Penetration Studies
4.5. 2PT-CARS—Skin Penetration Studies
4.6. Three-Photon Tomography (3PT) in Skin Imaging and Penetration Studies
4.7. MPT—Advantages, Limitations, and Applied Substance Requirements
5. Confocal Raman Micro-Spectroscopy (CRM)
5.1. CRM in Chemical Skin Research
5.2. “Tracking Specific Raman Band” Method—Skin Penetration Studies
5.3. “Non-Restricted Multiple Least Squares Fit” Method—Skin Penetration Studies
5.4. “Partial Least Squares Regression” Method—Skin Penetration Studies
5.5. “Gaussian-Function-Based Decomposition” Method—Skin Penetration Studies
5.6. “Non-Negative Matrix Factorization” Method—Skin Penetration Studies
5.7. “Tailored Multivariate Curve Resolution–Alternating Least Squares” Method—Skin Penetration Studies
5.8. CRM—Advantages, Limitations, and Applied Substance Requirements
6. Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Microscopy
6.1. SERS—Skin Penetration Studies
6.2. SERS—Advantages, Limitations, and Applied Substance Requirements
7. Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) Microscopy
7.1. SRS—Skin Penetration Studies
7.2. SRS—Advantages, Limitations, and Applied Substance Requirements
8. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)
8.1. OCT—Skin Penetration Studies
8.2. OCT—Advantages, Limitations, and Applied Substance Requirements
9. Conclusions and Future Prospects
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
2PT | two-photon tomography |
3PT | three photon tomography |
AF | autofluorescence |
APIs | active pharmaceutical ingredients |
ATR-FTIR | attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared |
BMDP-D | deuterated betamethasone dipropionate |
CARS | coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering |
CLSM | confocal laser scanning microscopy |
CRM | confocal Raman micro-spectroscopy |
DMSO | dimethyl sulfoxide |
EPR | electron paramagnetic resonance |
FCIs | functional cosmetic ingredients |
FCLSM | fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy |
FITC | fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate |
FLIM | fluorescence lifetime imaging |
FCLSM | fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy |
FP | fingerprint (400–2200 cm−1 spectral region) |
FTIR-PAS | Fourier-transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy |
HWN | high wavenumber (2500–4000 cm−1 spectral region) |
LDA | linear discriminant analysis |
MPT | multi-photon tomography |
NAD(P)H | nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate |
NMF | non-restricted multiple least squares fit |
NMF molecules | natural moisturizing factor molecules |
NNMF | non-negative matrix factorization |
OCT | optical coherence tomography |
PCA | principal component analysis |
PCA | 3-(Carboxy)-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-1-pyrrolidinyloxy |
PLSR | partial least squares regression |
RCLSM | reflectance confocal laser scanning microscopy |
RCM | reflectance confocal microscopy |
RCLSM | reflectance confocal laser scanning microscopy |
RS | Raman spectroscopy |
SC | stratum corneum |
SERS | surface-enhanced Raman scattering |
SHG | second-harmonic generation |
Skin-PAMPA | skin parallel artificial membrane permeability assay |
SRS | stimulated Raman scattering |
TEMPO | 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl |
TED-FTIR | thermal emission decay–Fourier-transform infrared |
TERS | tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy |
TEWL | transepidermal water loss |
THG | third-harmonic generation |
tMCR-ALS | tailored multivariate curve resolution–alternating least squares |
UV/VIS | ultraviolet/visible (light) |
ω1PEF | frequency of one-photon-excited fluorescence |
ω2PEF | frequency of two-photon-excited fluorescence |
ω3PEF | frequency of three-photon-excited fluorescence |
ωaS | frequency of anti-Stokes scattering light |
ωp | frequency of probe laser beam |
ωR | frequency of Rayleigh scattering light |
ωS | frequency of Stokes scattering light |
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Optical Method | Imaging Method (2D/3D) | Screening Depth, µm | Lateral/Axial Resolution | Penetration of Non-Particulate Substances | Penetration of Particulate Substances | Possibility to Quantify the Substances Used | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FCLSM | in vivo | Yes | ≈100 µm | <1 µm/ <5 µm | Yes 1,2 (low sensitivity) | Yes 1,2 (low sensitivity) | Yes [73] |
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
RCLSM | in vivo | Yes | ≈150 µm | No | Yes (low sensitivity) | No | |
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
2PT-AF | in vivo | Yes | ≈150 µm | <1 µm/ <2 µm | Yes 2 (low sensitivity) | Yes 2 (low sensitivity) | No |
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
2PT-FLIM | in vivo | Yes | Yes 3 (high sensitivity) | Yes 3 (high sensitivity) | |||
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
SHG | in vivo | Yes | No | Yes (high sensitivity) | |||
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
2PT-CARS | in vivo | Yes | Yes (low sensitivity) 4 | Yes (low sensitivity) 4 | |||
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
3PT | in vivo | Yes | <900 µm | <1 µm/ <2 µm | No | No | No |
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
CRM | in vivo | No 5 | ≈50 µm | <5 µm | Yes (high sensitivity) | Yes (high sensitivity) | Yes [207,209] |
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
SERS | in vivo | No 5 | ≈50 µm | <5 µm | No 6 | Yes 7 (high sensitivity) | No |
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
SRS | in vivo | Yes | ≈150 µm | <2 µm | Yes (high sensitivity) 4 | Yes (high sensitivity) 4 | Yes [160] |
ex vivo | Yes | ||||||
OCT | in vivo | Yes | <2 mm | <2 µm/ <5 µm | No | Yes (low sensitivity) 8 | No |
ex vivo | Yes |
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Darvin, M.E. Optical Methods for Non-Invasive Determination of Skin Penetration: Current Trends, Advances, Possibilities, Prospects, and Translation into In Vivo Human Studies. Pharmaceutics 2023, 15, 2272. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15092272
Darvin ME. Optical Methods for Non-Invasive Determination of Skin Penetration: Current Trends, Advances, Possibilities, Prospects, and Translation into In Vivo Human Studies. Pharmaceutics. 2023; 15(9):2272. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15092272
Chicago/Turabian StyleDarvin, Maxim E. 2023. "Optical Methods for Non-Invasive Determination of Skin Penetration: Current Trends, Advances, Possibilities, Prospects, and Translation into In Vivo Human Studies" Pharmaceutics 15, no. 9: 2272. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15092272