Genetic Strain Diversity of Multi-Host RNA Viruses that Infect a Wide Range of Pollinators and Associates is Shaped by Geographic Origins
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Specimen Collections
2.2. RNA Extraction and Reverse Transcription PCR for Virus Detection
2.3. Negative Strand Detection
2.4. Statistical Analyses
2.5. Phylogenetic Analyses
2.6. Phylogeny–Trait Correlation
3. Results
3.1. Viral Prevalence in Pollinators and Associated Arthropods
3.2. Viral Coinfections in Honey Bees and Argentine Ants
3.3. Viral Replication within Host Species
3.4. Viral Strain Diversity and Phylogenetic Analysis
3.5. Trait–Tip Associations
4. Discussion
4.1. Host Range of RNA Viruses
4.2. Pathogen Reservoir and Viral Spill Over into Wild Populations
4.3. Coinfections and Interactions among Viruses
4.4. Multi-Host Viruses in Emerging Disease
4.5. Global Distribution and Evolution of Bee Viruses
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Order | Family | Genus | Species | Common Name | n | DWV | KBV | MKV | BQCV | LhuBLV1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Araneae | Salticidae | Helpis | Helpis minitabunda | jumping spider | 1 | + | - | + | - | + |
Lycosidae | Lycosa | - | wolf spider | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | |
Theridiidae | Steatoda | Steatoda capensis | black cobweb spider | 3 | - | + | +/+ | - | - | |
Thomisidae | Diaea | flower spider | 4 | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Blattodea | Blattidae | Celatoblatta | - | cockroach | 9 | +/+ | + | + | - | - |
Maoriblatta | - | cockroach | 7 | + | - | + | - | + | ||
Coleoptera | Curculionidae | Scolopterus | Scolopterus penicillatus | black spined weevil | 1 | + | - | - | - | - |
Diptera | Sarcophagidae | Jantia | Jantia crassipalpis | flesh fly | 2 | - | - | - | - | - |
Stratiomyidae | - | - | solider fly | 2 | - | - | - | - | + | |
Tipulidae | Leptotarsus | - | crane fly | 2 | + | - | - | - | - | |
Dermaptera | Forficulidae | Forficula | Forficula auricularia | European earwig | 2 | + | + | - | - | - |
Hymenoptera | Apidae | Apis | Apis mellifera | honey bee | 51 | +/+ | +/+ | + | + | - |
Bombus | - | bumble bee | 2 | - | +/+ | - | - | - | ||
Formicidae | Linepithema | Linepithema humile | Argentine ant | 32 | +/+ | +/+ | +/+ | - | +/+ | |
Pompilidae | Sphictostethus | Sphictostethus nitidus | golden hunter wasp | 1 | + | - | - | - | - | |
Vespidae | Polistes | Polistes chinensis | Chinese paper wasp | 11 | + | - | +/+ | - | - | |
Polistes humilis | Australian paper wasp | 2 | - | - | + | - | - | |||
Vespula | Vespula germanica | German wasp | 1 | +/+ | + | +/+ | - | - | ||
Vespula vulgaris | common wasp | 3 | +/+ | +/+ | +/+ | - | - | |||
Ichneumonidae | Xanthocryptus | Xanthocryptus novozealandicus | lemon tree borer parasite | 1 | + | - | - | - | - | |
Odonata | Lestidae | Austrolestes | Austrolestes colensonis | blue damselfly | 2 | - | - | - | - | - |
Orthoptera | Acrididae | Locusta | Locusta migratoria | migratory locust | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
Gryllidae | Bobilla | - | small field cricket | 6 | + | +/+ | - | - | + | |
Teleogryllus | Teleogryllus commodus | black field cricket | 4 | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Total virus-positive species (samples) | 21 (151) | 14 (83) | 9 (44) | 10 (53) | 1 (18) | 5 (32) |
Host | BQCV | DWV | KBV | LhuBLV1 | MKV |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A. mellifera | 35% (23%–49%) | 100%* (94%–100%) | 25% (15%–39%) | - | 41% (28%–55%) |
L. humile | - | 41% (24%–58%) | 56%* (39%–72%) | 78% (61%–90%) | 34% (20%–53%) |
Statistic | n | Observed to Expected Ratio (95% CI) | Observed Mean (95% CI) | Null Mean (95% CI) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Association Index (AI) | |||||
Geographic location | - | 0.21 (0.13–0.30) | 2.83 (1.95–3.74) | 13.43 (12.47–14.47) | <0.01 |
Host species | - | 0.55 (0.40–0.74) | 4.96 (3.89–6.01) | 8.98 (8.17–9.76) | <0.01 |
Parsimony Score (PS) | |||||
Geographic location | - | 0.35 (0.30–0.40) | 30.91 (28.00–34.00) | 88.56 (84.43–92.45) | <0.01 |
Host species | - | 0.68 (0.61–0.74) | 34.87 (32.00–37.00) | 51.30 (49.75–52.35) | <0.01 |
Maximum Clade (MC) scores | |||||
Asia | 50 | - | 15.59 (11.00–21.00) | 2.57 (2.12–3.27) | <0.01 |
Europe | 76 | - | 14.44 (14.00–16.00) | 3.53 (2.89–4.79) | <0.01 |
North America | 24 | - | 4.48 (3.00–8.00) | 1.66 (1.28–2.09) | <0.01 |
Oceania | 25 | - | 12.54 (6.00–18.00) | 1.72 (1.29–2.24) | <0.01 |
Hawaii | 3 | - | 1.07 (1.00–2.00) | 1.01 (1.00–1.06) | 1 |
Apis | 126 | - | 13.24 (9.00–21.00) | 7.04 (5.37–9.93) | 0.01 |
Varroa destructor | 13 | - | 1.70 (1.00–3.00) | 1.27 (1.01–1.99) | 0.04 |
Associate | 6 | - | 1.83 (1.00–3.00) | 1.05 (1.00–1.19) | <0.01 |
Non-Apis bee | 23 | - | 4.23 (4.00–5.00) | 1.63 (1.23–2.07) | <0.01 |
Vespidae | 5 | - | 1.09 (1.00–2.00) | 1.03 (1.00–1.15) | 1 |
Formicidae | 4 | - | 2.00 (2.00–2.00) | 1.02 (1.00–1.07) | <0.01 |
Other Hymenoptera | 2 | - | 1.00 (1.00–1.00) | 1.00 (1.00–1.00) | 1 |
Statistic | n | Observed to Expected Ratio (95% CI) | Observed Mean (95%CI) | Null Mean (95%CI) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Association Index (AI) | |||||
Geographic location | 0.16 (0.13–0.25) | 0.36 (0.33–0.43) | 2.19 (1.74–2.63) | <0.01 | |
Host species | 0.27 (0.11–0.50) | 0.58 (0.29–0.79) | 2.14 (1.59–2.57) | <0.01 | |
Parsimony Score (PS) | |||||
Geographic location | 0.45 (0.40–0.58) | 6.06 (6.00–7.00) | 13.44 (12.12–14.92) | <0.01 | |
Host species | 0.59 (0.50–0.73) | 7.55 (7.00–8.00) | 12.74 (11.00–13.98) | <0.01 | |
Maximum Clade (MC) scores | |||||
North America | 4 | - | 2.00 (2.00–2.00) | 1.26 (1.00–2.00) | 0.10 |
New Zealand | 9 | - | 7.83 (6.00–7.00) | 1.92 (1.07–3.00) | 0.01 |
Europe | 3 | - | 3.00 (3.00–3.00) | 1.10 (1.00–2.00) | 0.01 |
Australia | 5 | - | 4.37 (4.00–5.00) | 1.24 (1.00–2.00) | 0.01 |
Apis | 6 | - | 2.54 (2.00–4.00) | 1.45 (1.00–2.94) | 0.19 |
Bombus | 3 | - | 2.97 (2.00–3.00) | 1.10 (1.00–2.00) | <0.01 |
Linepithema | 10 | - | 3.08 (3.00–4.00) | 2.12 (1.10–3.44) | 0.16 |
associate | 2 | - | 1.09 (1.00–2.00) | 1.03 (1.00–1.17) | 1 |
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Dobelmann, J.; Felden, A.; Lester, P.J. Genetic Strain Diversity of Multi-Host RNA Viruses that Infect a Wide Range of Pollinators and Associates is Shaped by Geographic Origins. Viruses 2020, 12, 358. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12030358
Dobelmann J, Felden A, Lester PJ. Genetic Strain Diversity of Multi-Host RNA Viruses that Infect a Wide Range of Pollinators and Associates is Shaped by Geographic Origins. Viruses. 2020; 12(3):358. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12030358
Chicago/Turabian StyleDobelmann, Jana, Antoine Felden, and Philip J. Lester. 2020. "Genetic Strain Diversity of Multi-Host RNA Viruses that Infect a Wide Range of Pollinators and Associates is Shaped by Geographic Origins" Viruses 12, no. 3: 358. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12030358