Influence of Natural and Anthropogenic Linear Canopy Openings on Forest Structural Patterns Investigated Using LiDAR
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. LiDAR Data
2.3. Site Selection
2.4. Data Analysis
2.4.1. Response Variables and Buffer Segments
2.4.2. Individual Tree Identification and Validation
2.4.3. Gap Definition and Delineation
2.4.4. Comparison of Forests around Linear Openings and Reference Forest
2.4.5. Depth of Influence—Average CUSUM
2.4.6. Magnitude of Edge Influence MEI
3. Results
3.1. Reference Forest vs. Forests around Linear Openings
3.2. Natural vs. Anthropogenic Openings
4. Discussion
4.1. Do Natural and Anthropogenic Linear Openings Cause the Same Effects?
4.2. The Influence of Orientation
4.3. How Far Do Effects Extend?
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type | Sampled Area | Width (m) | Orientation (°) | Length (m) | Total Area Sampled (ha) | Mean Elevation (m) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Side 1 * | Side 2 * | ||||||
Stream | 1 | 50 | 0 | 550 | 11 | 107 (E) | 105 (W) |
2 | 70 | 0 | 500 | 10 | 107 (E) | 106 (W) | |
Road | 1 | 20 | 0 | 530 | 10.6 | 293 (E) | 288 (W) |
2 | 20 | 25 | 1200 | 24 | 242 (E) | 238 (W) | |
3 | 20 | 35 | 1000 | 20 | 380 (N) | 376 (S) | |
Powerline | 1 | 90 | 270 | 530 | 10.6 | 330 (N) | 340 (S) |
2 | 150 | 325 | 1000 | 20 | 376 (N) | 380 (S) |
Comparison | Type | Gap Fraction | Sapling Height (m) | Sap. Density (stems/ha) | Tree Height (m) | Tree Density (stems/ha) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Max | Mean | Mean | Max | Mean | Mean | ||
Natural vs. Anthropogenic | Natural | 0.41 ± 0.07 | 4.0 | 2.6 ± 0.5 | 46 ± 27 | 31.3 | 13.1 ± 0.4 | 746.6 ± 51.4 |
Anthropo. | 0.45 ± 0.04 | 4.0 | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 93 ± 20 | 32.5 | 11.4 ± 0.3 | 659.9 ± 35.4 | |
Nat. vs. Anth. | p < 0.01 | p < 0.05 | p < 0.05 | p < 0.05 | p < 0.05 | |||
All features | Reference | 0.36 | 3.9 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 32 | 25.6 | 11.9 ± 2.2 | 520 |
Road | 0.43 ± 0.42 | 4.0 | 2.6 ± 0.1 | 77 ± 19 | 32.5 | 11.8 ± 0.4 | 663.6 ± 31.8 | |
Stream | 0.41 ± 0.07 | 4.0 | 2.6 ± 0.5 | 46 ± 27 | 31.3 | 13.1 ± 0.4 | 746.6 ± 51.4 | |
Powerline | 0.49 ± 0.43 | 4.0 | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 116 ± 33 | 31.3 | 10.8 ± 0.4 | 654.3 ± 56.0 | |
Reference vs. linear openings | Ref. vs. all types | p < 0.01 | p < 0.01 | ns | ns | p < 0.001 | ||
Ref. vs. type | p < 0.01 | p < 0.05 | p < 0.01 | ns | p < 0.001 | |||
Natural vs. Anthropogenic vs. orientation | Natural-E | 0.38 ± 0.06 | 4.0 | 2.8 ± 0.3 | 25 ± 15 | 31.3 | 13.2 ± 0.6 | 830.2 ± 78.7 |
Natural-W | 0.44 ± 0.09 | 4.0 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 66 ± 40 | 29.8 | 13.1 ± 0.9 | 663.2 ± 75.2 | |
Nat. E vs. W | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | ns | p < 0.001 | |||
Anthropo.-E | 0.39 ± 0.05 | 4.0 | 2.7 ± 0.2 | 49 ± 27 | 26.8 | 10.6 ± 0.5 | 604.2 ± 45.5 | |
Anthropo.-W | 0.49 ± 0.1 | 4.0 | 2.6 ± 0.2 | 118 ± 45 | 32.5 | 12.9 ± 0.7 | 679.8 ± 70.7 | |
Nat. vs. Anth.-E | p < 0.05 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.01 | ns | p < 0.001 | |||
Nat. vs. Anth.-W | p < 0.05 | ns | p < 0.01 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |||
Anthropo.-N | 0.45 ± 0.03 | 4.0 | 2.6 ± 0.2 | 98 ± 28 | 31.1 | 11.2 ± 0.4 | 649.5 ± 50.3 | |
Anthropo.-S | 0.47 ± 0.03 | 4.0 | 2.7 ± 0.2 | 100 ± 25 | 31.3 | 11.0 ± 0.4 | 694.2 ± 42.7 |
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Vepakomma, U.; Kneeshaw, D.D.; De Grandpré, L. Influence of Natural and Anthropogenic Linear Canopy Openings on Forest Structural Patterns Investigated Using LiDAR. Forests 2018, 9, 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9090540
Vepakomma U, Kneeshaw DD, De Grandpré L. Influence of Natural and Anthropogenic Linear Canopy Openings on Forest Structural Patterns Investigated Using LiDAR. Forests. 2018; 9(9):540. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9090540
Chicago/Turabian StyleVepakomma, Udayalakshmi, Daniel D. Kneeshaw, and Louis De Grandpré. 2018. "Influence of Natural and Anthropogenic Linear Canopy Openings on Forest Structural Patterns Investigated Using LiDAR" Forests 9, no. 9: 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9090540