1. Introduction
Ground workers on cable logging operations work in close proximity to multiple, moving hazards, including highly active heavy equipment, raw materials, and other objects that are swung, dragged, dropped, and dislodged on steep slopes. Proximity to these hazards creates potentially injurious situations for cable logging workers [
1,
2,
3,
4]. Unlike mechanized, ground-based operations in which employees are generally working within enclosed machine cabs, cable operations rely on ground crew who work unprotected alongside equipment and other hazards in a dynamic environment. Hand fallers and members of the rigging crew face increased risk of injury from hazards such as falling limbs or falling live (green) and dead trees, as well as rolling logs and rocks on steep slopes [
1,
4,
5]. Although United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and state-level regulations require felling of standing dead trees (snags) within active logging areas [
6] (1910.266(h)(1)(vi)), snags may still be present on the periphery of units and during initial work periods prior to felling.
The dangerous nature of logging work is reflected in the industry’s high fatality injury rates, as published annually by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). The BLS’ 2015 Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries reported 132.7 logger deaths for every 100,000 full-time employees, which was the highest rate of any profession in the United States in 2015 [
7]. The rate increased 20% from 2014, when logging also ranked as the most fatal occupation [
8]. Lefort et al., who characterized logger injuries in the late 1980s and early 1990s, noted that mechanization of the logging industry had reduced the total number of workplace accidents, but had triggered an increase in injury severity [
3]. They attributed this trend to the changing nature of exposure; ground crew are now working closer to the landing where they face impacts from moving logs and machinery. In 2015, the BLS identified trees, logs, or limbs as the primary source of fatal injury in 41 of 80 total occupational deaths in the logging industry, while 14 deaths were attributed to machinery [
9]. Consistent with reports by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, an analysis of Worker’s Compensation claims in West Virginia indicated objects, primarily trees, snags, or logs, striking crew members accounted for 47% of injuries, more than any other cause [
1]. Similarly, according to claims records from eight southern states in 1997, falling trees or limbs and moving logs caused the most accidents (28% of injuries), followed by equipment, including skidders, feller-bunchers, dozers, and loaders (23%) [
4].
GNSS-RF (Global Navigation Satellite System-Radio Frequency) transponders have the potential to reduce the incidence of injuries and fatalities on logging operations by improving situational awareness. GNSS-RF units determine their coordinates from one or more navigation satellite systems, including the United States’ Global Positioning System (GPS), Russia’s Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), China’s BeiDou, or Europe’s Galileo. They then transmit those coordinates to other units locally by data transfer using radio frequency transmission. Used in conjunction with mobile devices such as phones or handheld tablets, or onboard computers, GNSS-RF technology can provide a real-time, systemic visualization of all the interacting components of logging operations, supplementing voice communications used conventionally on two-way radios and signal horns such as Talkie-Tooters (Rothenbuhler Engineering, Sedro Woolley, WA, USA). With knowledge of ground crew positions in relation to potential hazards, machine operators could make more informed decisions based on the known locations of workers displayed on maps on mobile devices and, in some cases, supplement the use of conventional audible communication with visual or audible alerts indicating worker presence in work zones delineated by geofences [
10,
11,
12].
GNSS has been utilized widely in forestry for decades. GNSS is integrated into Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map ownerships and delineate stand boundaries, forest road locations, and other features on timber sales [
13]. Mobile positioning devices have been installed on harvesting machines to track movement over the course of harvest operations and assess soil impacts and performance [
14,
15]. GNSS is increasingly being used in place of traditional, observational methods to characterize productive cycle-times of forest machines [
16,
17,
18]. Harvesters have been fitted with GNSS devices to collect tree positioning data [
19,
20]. Development of GNSS paired with RF for real-time positioning is emerging quickly in forestry and has a variety of potential uses including operational and wildland fire logistics, real-time optimization, and safety [
10,
11,
12,
16].
Situational awareness can be augmented further by combining GNSS-RF positioning with virtual boundaries known as geofences, which delineate hazardous areas, silvicultural treatments, or work zones on timber sales [
10,
11]. Geofences provide a means by which to monitor the current locations of people, equipment, or other resources relative to spatial boundaries and can be programmed to alert users of crossing events [
21]. They have been successfully integrated into various industries to help resolve positional monitoring and restriction needs [
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
26] and have potential applications in logging to alert machine operators about ground-worker proximity [
10,
11,
12].
To improve logging safety, geofence boundaries need to account for dynamic positional relationships between workers and hazards. As ground workers move throughout cable corridors, spatial proximity of people to one more pieces of equipment, snags, skyline rigging, and harvested resources are in constant flux. OSHA, which establishes guidelines and regulations for safe practices on logging operations in the United States, does not provide explicit safe distance recommendations for most logging equipment. Rather, it relies upon workers to interpret safe proximity in situational context. OSHA regulation 1910.266(f)(2)(vii) states that a “machine shall be operated at such a distance from employees and other machines such that operation will not create a hazard for an employee” [
6]. Oregon OSHA Division 7 (2009), as well as common industrial safety awareness campaigns, advise workers to stay “in the clear”, which generally is translated as a distance equivalent to the length of a tree or log being transported to the landing [
27]. However, if loggers frequently occupy areas less than one tree length from a hazard, the geofence associated with that hazard may need to be smaller than the recommended safety distance in order for operators to discern between normal activity and higher risk situations, or early warning signals may need to be deployed. Knowledge of positional relationships will also help define GNSS accuracy needs. If ground crew generally work within 5–10 m of a hazard, positioning errors greater than 5 m may be detrimental to safety; whereas lower accuracies may still be useful in improving general awareness if workers already avoid proximity to hazardous areas. The use of mobile geofences, which can move with hazards, introduces additional considerations, such as geofence alert accuracies associated with the geometry of multiple moving components [
12].
Although the sources of occupational injuries and fatalities are well-documented for logging and use of geofences for logging safety applications has been studied in designed experiments, spatial analysis of the actual positional relationships between workers and some common hazards on active operations has not been quantified or summarized previously. In fact, despite the widespread attention to spatial proximity in safety training as well as state and federal regulations in forestry, there has been virtually no prior analysis of actual positional movements among ground workers of the sort that is now possible using GNSS-RF technology. In this paper, we characterized the real-time positions of ground crew workers and three common situational hazards during active cable operations using coordinates collected by Raveon Atlas PT GNSS-RF devices (Raveon Technologies Corp, San Diego, CA, USA), which feature a VHF data modem combined with a 12-channel GNSS receiver that receives position information from a single constellation, the American NAVSTAR GPS system. It is important to note that the devices do not receive positional information from GLONASS, BeiDou, or Galileo, as some other current GNSS-RF devices do. We summarized safe worker–hazard distances by calculating the amount of time, in one second increments, that workers occupied zones outside (“safe”) and inside (“unsafe”) circular geofence boundaries assigned to each hazard. Because forest overstory is known to impact GNSS accuracy [
28,
29,
30], we also conducted a designed experiment on the University of Idaho Experimental Forest to quantify canopy impacts on receiver accuracy in both mature and recently clearcut stands. These conditions correspond to the early stages of harvesting operations (canopy intact), transitioning to later stages (canopy removed) that result during typical clearcut operations in the northwestern United States. We then used simulation to re-analyze our operational data, in order to evaluate the extent to which canopy-induced error, as determined in the earlier designed experiment, affected the GNSS-characterized safety status of ground workers over the course of active operations.
Our specific objectives were to determine whether the proportion of unsafe time, defined as time spent inside one or more hazard geofences, differed by (1) hazard type (loader, carriage, snag); (2) timber sale; or (3) GNSS environment (observed, mature, clearcut).
4. Discussion
Our results showed clearly that the nature of positional relationships was complex and varied both between sites and between hazard types in each treatment comparison tested. Distinct, multi-modal patterns of worker proximity to hazards were evident, and the locations of peak distances where workers tended to spend more time varied by day. Although we did not formally test differences among the three days sampled at each site, it was evident graphically when overlaying the distributions of proximity (
Figure 6) that distinct patterns of spatial proximity exist and change over time. These trends likely correspond to, for example, hookers gradually working further from the loader as they set chokers and yard materials to the landing from further down the hill, or gradually working either closer to or further away from snag hazards identified adjacent to the harvest units.
A more nuanced analysis of individual worker positions relative to multiple hazards, such as studying hooker or chaser movements separately, could help to better quantify the spatial and temporal nature of positional relationships during normal work. However, we felt that our analysis reflected the reality of cable logging, in which multiple hazards are present simultaneously for any given worker, often in different directions. For example, a member of the rigging crew setting chokers near the top of the hill may be at risk of impact from rolling logs inadvertently bumped by the loader at the log deck. At the same time, he or she may also be at risk of being hit by a rotating log attached to a choker as the carriage begins to laterally yard logs toward the skyline if not sufficiently ‘in the clear’ at a safe distance horizontally across the hillslope from the carriage (and log). Simultaneously, a snag on the perimeter of the corridor could fall if dislodged by the log being yarded or a cable under tension. Although we focused on three possible hazards, the reality of cable logging is that multiple, other concerns are also present, including the processor swinging logs, pinch points caused as swing yarders, loaders, and processors rotate adjacent to the cut slope of the logging road, possible chain shot from the processor, and loose boulders in the corridor that may become dislodged.
Results of our controlled experiment on the UI Experimental Forest showed that the positioning accuracy of the GNSS-RF transponders used in our study was greatly affected by canopy. RMSE for the Atlas PT GNSS receivers in clearcuts was 3.37 m; whereas in mature, 90-year old mixed conifer stands, the RMSE was 11.08 m. The error observed in our study represents a function of variables affecting positioning accuracy, including Atlas PT receiver quality, the satellite geometry for the specific times and dates of sampling (see
Table 1 for PDOP values), and multipath effects unique to the individual environments of each site. Improved GNSS receivers may demonstrate higher accuracies, even in mature stands. GNSS error associated with forest canopy has been well-documented though [
28,
29,
30], so the observed variation in positioning accuracy by cover type is consistent with past studies.
When simulation was used to evaluate the relative importance of variable GNSS accuracy on worker safety status during active logging, results clearly showed that canopy-induced error did significantly affect the safety status, as defined using geofences. It is important to note that simulated canopy and clearcut error impacts on worker safety status were based on resampling from positioning data obtained at different locations, dates, and times than the operational sampling, so our results serve as an approximate estimation of canopy effects; actual error observed at active logging operations may differ due to topography or other factors. Further, error estimates based on static positioning in the controlled experiment were likely more conservative than error associated with dynamic positioning during active logging operations [
32,
33]. A further caveat we wish to highlight is that the statistical method used in our analysis to evaluate differences among sites and hazards, the Marascuillo Procedure, does not formally account for potential correlation that exists between adjacent location sample points in time and space. To the extent possible, we addressed this issue through the use of an analytical script that involved randomized resampling from our experimental data. For subsequent analysis, development of an analytical method that incorporates hierarchical modeling, including both fixed and random effects, into the procedure may help address impacts of possible correlated data structures associated with real-time GNSS.
Applications of real-time positioning for logging safety need to account for the reality that both mature and clearcut conditions, and associated impacts on GNSS accuracy, occur over the course of most conventional harvesting operations in the northwestern U.S. When a harvest unit has been felled in its entirety and the rigging crew is working in the open, more accurate positioning is possible. However, higher errors should be expected for GNSS-RF applications related to manual fallers or feller-bunchers, or in partial harvesting operations, such as the John Lewis Pole cedar pole harvest. Lower accuracies attributed to canopy cover may also be compounded by terrain effects, which can reduce satellite fix rates in forested areas, particularly in valleys [
28,
29,
34]. For example, GNSS accuracies of devices associated with the rigging crew could vary between hookers working downhill and chasers working closer to ridgelines.
If sub-meter accuracy is desired under canopies, similar to precision forestry applications that require accurate marking of skid trails or individual trees [
35], ground based augmentation systems (GBAS) may be necessary. GBAS determine the degree of error and transmit corrections to rover units which can then re-calculate their positions accordingly [
19]. Haughlin et al. recently achieved 0.94-m accuracy on a harvester using RTK (real-time kinematic) correction, compared to 7 m with GNSS alone [
20]. It is also important to note that the Atlas PT transponders used in this study relied on only the United States’ NAVSTAR GPS constellation for position determination. Many current GNSS devices, including even consumer-grade handheld units for recreational use, are multi-constellation devices that determine position using not only GPS, but also the Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). Emerging devices will soon also utilize European (Galileo) and Chinese (BeiDou) navigational satellite systems as well. It is likely that newer GNSS-RF transponders capable of multi-constellation positioning will have higher accuracy in forested, mountainous locations where the number of trackable satellites may be diminished. However, use of multi-constellation sensors will not eliminate the multipath error endemic to highly reflective environments such as forests [
32]. Similarly, although GBAS can greatly reduce GNSS positioning errors under canopies, differential correction cannot account for multipath effects. Even DGPS receivers will demonstrate higher errors in mature stands than in clearcuts.
According to our distance-based definitions of safe and hazardous work areas, the rigging crews we evaluated spent, on average, over one-third of their work day in unsafe conditions associated with the loader and carriage and nearly half of the day near snags. The simulated proportions of time spent in unsafe zones based on expected mature stand error varied significantly from observed proportions for six of nine tests; thus, using the technology evaluated in our study, accuracy errors associated with GNSS-RF devices under the canopy do impact perceptions of safety on logging operations, even when using basic, dichotomous definitions based on presence inside or outside a geofence. Devices with greater accuracy capabilities, at least through multi-constellation GNSS processing, and preferably RTK or other improved localization, are recommended for fine-resolution applications such as worker positioning around the landing. Proportions of safe and unsafe time differed significantly between observed and clearcut data in only one test, indicating that the higher accuracies achievable in clearcut conditions enable greater reliability in geofence alerts.
Use of GNSS-RF technology for safety applications on logging operations should be proportional to accuracy limitations. Given the large GNSS error observed under mature forest canopy in our designed experiment, single-constellation GNSS-RF radios such as the Raveon Atlas PT should only be deployed for very coarse monitoring of worker locations to improve general situational awareness and communication in forested environments; no operator decisions should be made based on observed, transmitted locations indicating the proximity of workers to jobsite hazards. That said, our operational sampling results offer a glimpse into the novel sorts of analyses that are becoming possible with real-time, networked positioning solutions in operational forestry. There is tremendous potential for improving both the safety and efficiency of logging through analysis of the high resolution spatial and temporal data that results from deployment of GNSS-RF and similar location-based services in production forestry.
Future research on GNSS-RF use for logging safety may wish to consider both vertical and horizontal positioning to better account for overhead hazards, such as the carriage, and to better specify inter-element distances on steep slopes. Future studies may also address how current positioning devices and systems can be adapted specifically for forestry applications, such as improvements to the user interface that allow loggers to utilize the technology easily and effectively with little distraction to normal work flow. This could entail display and sound settings or possible integration with other forms of data acquisition. For instance, Light Detecting and Ranging (LiDAR) information collected on snag locations could be synchronized with GNSS data to note worker proximity to snags or other environmental hazards [
36]. Safety applications could also incorporate a more fluid warning system, such as through a series of proximity alerts that indicate increasing levels of danger associated with proximity to one or more hazards.