Outcomes of Community-Based Forest Management for Biodiversity Conservation in Northwest Ethiopia

Abstract

Community-based Forest management (CBFM) has emerged as a promising approach for reconciling biodiversity conservation with rural livelihoods. However, despite its growing implementation in Ethiopia, limited empirical evidence exists on how CBFM influences biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic conditions across different local contexts. This study addressed this gap by examining the biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic implications of CBFM across three districts in Northwest Ethiopia—Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja—where forests are communally managed. A structured questionnaire was administered to 412 randomly selected farmers, and responses were analyzed quantitatively using Likert scale ratings, descriptive statistics, and chi-square tests in SPSS Version 23. The findings revealed statistically significant variations among districts in terms of community engagement in conservation, awareness of environmental policies, and involvement in habitat restoration efforts. Fagita–Lokoma showed the highest levels of participation and knowledge regarding conservation laws (χ² = 11.81, p < 0.019; χ² = 13.3, p = 0.01) as well as active involvement in habitat restoration (χ² = 301, p = 0.000). These differences appear to be associated with stronger local governance structures and greater livelihood dependence on forest resources in Fagita–Lokoma than in the other districts. It consistently demonstrated the highest levels of participation and knowledge, whereas Banja had the lowest levels. Most respondents (76.7%) indicated that socioeconomic interests, particularly related to timber, wildlife, and tourism, were key drivers of their conservation activities. While the economic benefits of biodiversity were generally perceived as moderate, the cost of conservation was seen as low to medium by 65% of participants. These results highlight the critical role of community participation and local awareness in shaping the outcomes of biodiversity conservation. This study concluded that CBFM can achieve positive biodiversity results when local livelihood interests are effectively aligned with ecological goals through inclusive and well-supported governance frameworks.

1. Introduction

Biodiversity underpins ecosystem health and supports the livelihood of millions, particularly in rural and forest-dependent communities [1]. However, biodiversity continues to decline at an alarming rate owing to deforestation, land degradation, unsustainable resource use, and weak governance structures, particularly in developing countries [2,3,4]. Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced significant loss and fragmentation in recent decades, largely driven by agricultural expansion and fuelwood extraction [5,6,7,8]. This trend threatens not only ecological stability but also local economies and food security [9]. In response to these challenges, community-based forest management (CBFM) has attracted international attention as a participatory strategy for conserving biodiversity, while simultaneously improving local livelihoods [10,11,12]. The core idea of CBFM is that giving communities a sense of ownership and accountability for forest resources encourages more sustainable practices and leads to better conservation results [6,9]. Evidence from Asia, Latin America, and Africa indicates that community-managed forests frequently outperform centrally managed forests with lower deforestation rates, higher biodiversity, and more effective local governance arrangements [13,14,15,16,17]. However, the outcomes are not uniform; ecological and socioeconomic results vary based on local institutional capacity, community incentives, enforcement, and access to markets [18].

Since the early 2000s, Ethiopia has officially endorsed participatory forest management (PFM) as a substitute for centralized forest governance. This approach has been incorporated into national forestry policies to curb deforestation and boost the involvement of local communities [19,20]. Although numerous studies emphasize enhancements in governance and household income through PFM, there is limited and debated evidence regarding its effects on biodiversity [21], and the ways in which local knowledge, awareness of conservation laws, and perceived ecosystem benefits affect biodiversity outcomes remain insufficiently understood [14].

The dominant livelihood system in all three districts is mixed farming, with communities relying heavily on agriculture and livestock rearing [22]. The fertile Nitisol soil supports the cultivation of staple crops such as potatoes, teff, maize, wheat, barley, millets, peas, and beans [23]. Despite similarities in agroecological features and land use objectives, such as sustaining productivity and conserving natural resources, distinct variations exist in land use practices shaped by diverse socioeconomic conditions and cultural traditions. Crop fields often extend beyond homestead boundaries, and communities commonly manage adjacent pastures and forest areas for grazing and forest product collection. These shared yet differentiated land management approaches reflect the complex socioecological dynamics of community-based forest governance in the region.

This study addresses this gap by examining the biodiversity outcomes of CBFM and socioeconomic drivers of community engagement in forest conservation. Focusing on three districts in Northwest Ethiopia—Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja—this study employs structured questionnaires and statistical analysis to assess participation in conservation activities, awareness of environmental laws, and perceptions of ecosystem-related benefits. By comparing community responses across districts, this study provides a nuanced understanding of the interplay between local governance, biodiversity conservation, and rural livelihood. These findings contribute to evidence-based recommendations for policy makers and scholars working toward sustainable forest management and community empowerment.

Biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecological balance, sustaining rural livelihoods, and ensuring the resilience of natural systems. However, it is under increasing threat worldwide, owing to deforestation, habitat loss, climate change, and unsustainable resource use [24]. In many cases, community involvement improves forest conditions, increases biodiversity, and strengthens resource governance [25]. These challenges are particularly acute in sub-Saharan Africa, where rural communities rely heavily on forests and other natural resources for fuel, food, and medicine [26,27,28,29].

CBFM is grounded in the principle that devolving forest management responsibilities to local communities coupled with access to benefits and recognition of traditional knowledge enhances both ecological and socioeconomic outcomes [21]. In many cases, community involvement improves forest conditions, increases biodiversity, and strengthens resource governance [30]. Ethiopia has been among the African countries that have institutionalized participatory forest management (PFM) since the 1990s following widespread degradation under state-controlled forest regimes [28]. This approach was formalized in the Forest Proclamation of 2007, which laid the foundation for community-managed forests through legal recognition and cooperative agreements [31].

Despite these policy efforts, questions remain about the actual biodiversity outcomes of CBFM, particularly in Ethiopia’s highland regions, where population pressure and agricultural expansion are intense. Although previous studies have highlighted the socioeconomic benefits of PFM, such as improved livelihoods, increased forest cover, and better forest governance [32,33], less attention has been paid to its direct effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Moreover, variations in local knowledge, institutional capacity, and incentive structures can have a significant influence.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study Area

This study was carried out in Northwest Ethiopia (Figure 1), within the Awi administrative zone of Amhara Regional State, situated between 11°00′ and 11°50′ N latitude and 36°45′ and 36°47′ E longitude. It focuses on three adjacent districts (Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja), each comprising three selected localities: Gisa Baleegziabher, Abadra Agaga, and Chara in Dangila; Dimama Manguda, Asuha Funzit, and Dimama Mariyam in Fagita–Lokoma; and Kuchkuch Wadana, Wusela Enjeka, and Alayita Surka. The region is characterized by altitudes ranging from 1800 to 3100 m above sea level, with average monthly temperatures ranging from 17 °C to 27 °C and an annual average rainfall of approximately 1750 mm [34]. Acacia decurrens is a prominent tree species in community-managed forests [22,35]. Previous studies have documented the expansion and socioeconomic significance of Acacia decurrens in the Awi Zone, where large-scale plantations have transformed land use and provided both opportunities and challenges for rural livelihoods [35,36]. These studies, along with earlier analyses on best practices and utilization strategies, highlight the ecological and economic role of Acacia decurrens in Northwest Ethiopia.

The observed differences were in the extent of community participation, awareness of conservation laws and policies, involvement in habitat restoration, and perceived socioeconomic benefits derived from forest ecosystems [37]. Although all three districts, Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja, possess pasture and forest areas near their communities, the ways in which these resources are utilized differ considerably. Some communities prioritize grazing, while others focus more heavily on forest products such as fuelwood, timber, and non-timber resources. Socioeconomic disparities significantly influence community participation in conservation activities, awareness, compliance with environmental laws, and involvement in habitat restoration [38,39]. Some areas engage in intensive planting schemes, whereas others rely on subsistence-based or traditional planting methods. Additionally, diversity in forest management strategies is influenced by the presence of local institutions, customary laws, and external policy interventions. While some communities operate under formal, well-organized governance systems, others rely on informal or customary mechanisms [40,41].

2.2. Methods

Data Collection

Three districts, Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja, were purposively selected from the Awi Zone of Northwest Ethiopia because of the prevalence of Acacia decurrens and the relevance of community forest practices. Additionally, the districts exhibit notable differences in institutional and governance structures: Fagita–Lokoma is characterized by relatively robust local forest user groups, Dangila has moderate governance frameworks, and Banja has less-developed institutional systems. This diversity enabled a comparison of how variations in governance capacity and reliance on livelihoods affect biodiversity outcomes within the context of CBFM. Although the study does not aim to encompass all ecological and cultural settings across Ethiopia, these districts are largely representative of highland regions where community forestry is practiced alongside mixed farming systems and there is a strong dependence on forest resources for livelihoods. Thus, we regard them as appropriate case studies through which to derive insights that are both locally relevant and informative for the broader Ethiopian CBFM experience. In each district, three representative localities were identified, and key informants helped to mobilize the participants. According to population statistics [42], proportional allocation and systematic random sampling were applied, and an overall sample size of 412 households was determined using formula [1] at a 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error.

$$\mathrm{n}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{N}\times {\mathrm{Z}}^2\times \mathrm{P}(1-\mathrm{P})}{\left[{\mathrm{d}}^2\times \left(\mathrm{N}-1\right)\right]+{\mathrm{Z}}^2\times \mathrm{P}(1-\mathrm{P})}}$$

where:

• n is the sample size.
• N is the total population.
• d is the margin of error/precision level (d = 5%).
• Z is the desired confidence level (a Z score of 1.96 or 95% confidence level).
• P is the population proportion (P = 0.5). The formula is taken from [43].

Data were collected using a structured household questionnaire covering demographics, conservation practices, policy awareness, habitat restoration, and perceptions of ecosystem services. The tool was pre-tested in a similar area, refined for clarity and cultural appropriateness, and administered face-to-face by trained enumerators between 28 June and 30 September 2023. Supplementary secondary sources including academic publications, policy documents, and government reports were reviewed to support the analysis.

A proportional allocation method was used to determine the sample size in each locality based on the population share. Participants were selected through systematic random sampling to ensure that each household had an equal chance of inclusion. The overall sample size was determined using [43] for finite populations at a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, which yielded a sample of 412 households proportionally allocated across the three districts.

To guarantee clarity, dependability, and cultural relevance, the questionnaire underwent a preliminary test in a nearby area with socioecological conditions like those of the target communities. The pilot study revealed that some questions posed challenges for respondents with low literacy levels; consequently, the language was simplified, and technical jargon was replaced with expressions familiar to the local population. Additionally, the order of certain questions was rearranged to enhance logical progression and redundant items were eliminated. These modifications improved the comprehensibility and reliability of the final instrument.

The Figure 2 below shows the three purposively selected districts (with the total population and target population) and their three purposively selected localities. Household samples from each locality were selected using systematic random sampling (SRS).

2.3. Data Analysis

To evaluate the differences among districts, the data were examined using descriptive statistics, frequency distributions, and chi-square tests. The responses were encoded and analyzed using SPSS Version 23. Before conducting chi-square tests, assumptions were checked to ensure that all expected cell frequencies exceeded five, thus meeting the statistical criteria for using the chi-square test. The findings are displayed in tables and figures to enable comparison across the three districts.

3. Results

3.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

Efforts were made to ensure gender representation when selecting participants for the survey. However, male respondents made up a higher proportion of the sample, largely reflecting their direct involvement in forest management and conservation activities in the studied communities. Of the 412 individuals surveyed, 302 (73%) were male, while 110 (27%) were female (Figure 3).

Figure 3 shows as the respondents were grouped into five age categories: 18–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, and 55 years and above. Eligibility for participation required individuals to be at least 18 years old. Based on the data collected, 4% of respondents answered between 18 and 24 years, 18% between 25 and 34, 48% between 35 and 34, 20% between 45 and 54, and 8% above 55.

In terms of educational attainment, 47% of respondents had completed primary education. A substantial proportion of the participants were illiterate, reflecting ongoing barriers to educational access in rural agricultural communities. The number of respondents with higher education, college, or university level was relatively low, underscoring the limited availability of tertiary education in the study areas. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that those with higher educational qualifications are likely to be younger individuals, possibly the children of farmers, who have had increased access to educational opportunities in recent years.

3.2. Local Community Interest in Conservation

3.2.1. Community Participation and Awareness in Forest Conservation

There was a notable disparity in the level of biodiversity conservation and control between the three locations (X² = 11.81, df = 4, p < 0.019). This encompasses an understanding of conservation laws and policies as well as the active involvement of local communities in the restoration and establishment of habitats. The frequency distribution reveals that the response “somewhat high” has the highest proportion (25% to 40%) among all locations.

Table 1. Extent of the local community for conservation practices, policy, and law.

Categories	Districts			Frequency
	Dangila	Fagita–Lokoma	Banja
Somewhat medium	24 (16.9%)	28 (16.8%)	16 (15.5%)	17%
High	22 (15.5%)	26 (15.6%)	17 (16.5%)	16%
Somewhat high	36 (25.4%)	38 (22.8%)	28 (27.2%)	25%
Very high	30 (21.1%)	36 (21.6%)	21 (20.4%)	21%
Extremely high	30 (21.1%)	39 (23.4%)	21 (20.4%)	22%
Frequency	34.5%	40.5%	25%	100%
X2	11.81*, df = 4, p = 0.019     * stands for statistical difference

below shows local conservation participation in the Dangila, Fagita, and Banja districts. Engagement levels included medium, high, somewhat high, very high, and extremely high. In “medium,” Dangila is 24, Fagita 28, and Banja 16. Three values make up 17% of the total. These data show medium involvement, with Fagita marginally ahead. The 16% “high” involvement frequencies are 22 in Dangila, 26 in Fagita, and 17 in Banja. This implies a high level of participation, particularly in Fagita.

Dangila, Fagita, and Banja have 36, 38, and 28 “somewhat high” cases, making up 25% of the total. This implies significant engagement with Fagita leading. Dangila, Fagita, and Banja are “very high” with 30, 36, and 21 frequencies. These three regions account for 21% of the total, suggesting community involvement, particularly in Fagita. Dangila and Fagita, which had “extremely high” participation frequencies of 30 and 39. Banja, with 21 frequencies, contributed 22%, indicating the greatest interaction.

Fagita has the highest engagement rate at 40.5%. Dangila follows at 34.5%, while Banja is behind, at 25%. This shows that Fagita has the most proactive involvement in the conservation community. The chi-square test shows a significant difference in community involvement between districts (X² = 11.81*, df = 4, p = 0.019). However, this divergence is unlikely to be random. Fagita shows substantial community involvement in conservation efforts with consistently high frequencies in all interaction areas. Banja is least involved, followed by Dangila. Policy makers and stakeholders need this information to understand community engagement and to design conservation actions to increase participation, particularly in low-engagement regions.

3.2.2. Level of Local Community Awareness and Adherence to Conservation Laws and Policies

Table 2. Level of local community awareness and adherence to conservation laws and policies.

Categories	Districts			Frequency
	Dangila	Fagita–Lokoma	Banja
Somewhat medium	23	27	17	16
High	24	27	16	16
Somewhat high	37	45	25	26
Very high	29	35	21	21
Extremely high	29	33	24	21
Frequency	34.5%	40.5%	25%	100%
X2	13.3*, df = 4, p = 0.01       * stands for statistical difference

examines the level of local community awareness and adherence to conservation laws and policies in three districts: Dangila, Fagita, and Banja. The knowledge categories were classified as medium, high, very high, and extremely high. In the category “Somewhat medium,” Dangila had a frequency of 23, Fagita had a frequency of 27, and Banja had a frequency of 17. These frequencies collectively account for 16% of the total. This indicates a medium level of community awareness, with Fagita demonstrating slightly higher knowledge. The “High” group displays frequencies of 24 in Dangila, 27 in Fagita, and 16 in Banja, accounting for 16% of the total. This signifies a significant level of comprehension, with Fagita being somewhat higher than the others.

In the category “Somewhat high,” Dangila had a total of 37, Fagita 45, and Banja 25. Together, these numbers make up 26% of the total, indicating a notable level of community knowledge, particularly in Fagita. Dangila has a knowledge level classified as “Very high” with a score of 29, Fagita has a score of 35, and Banja has a score of 21. These scores accounted for 21% of the total and indicated a significant level of understanding, particularly in Fagita. The “Extremely high” category exhibits frequencies of 29 in Dangila, 33 in Fagita, and 24 in Banja, constituting 21% of the overall total. This category signifies the highest level of community comprehension, with Fagita taking the lead, followed by Dangila.

Fagita had the highest percentage of knowledge at (40.5%), followed by Dangila at (34.5%) and Banja at (25%). This suggests that Fagita has the most knowledgeable community regarding conservation laws and policies. The chi-square test results (X² = 13.3*, df = 4, p = 0.01) demonstrated a statistically significant disparity in community knowledge levels among districts. This suggests that the observed differences are meaningful and are not the result of random chance.

In conclusion, the analysis demonstrated that Fagita possessed the greatest level of local community knowledge for effectively navigating and adhering to conservation laws and policies, followed by Dangila and Banja. Fagita regularly exhibited greater frequencies across all knowledge areas, demonstrating strong and comprehensive community comprehension. The obtained chi-square value was highly significant, indicating that the observed differences were statistically significant. This finding offers vital information for policy makers and stakeholders to customize teaching and enforcement initiatives to improve compliance, particularly in districts with lower levels of knowledge.

3.2.3. Respecting Local By-Laws

There was a strong variation (X² = 314.6* df = 3, p = 0.00 between categories for local communities’ engagement and respect for local by-laws of CBFM. Most respondents (70.8%) agreed that users and non-users of the CBFM projects were willing to obey rules regarding responsibilities, benefits, and revenues. Local communities were highly engaged (91.7%) in respecting local by-laws for conservation and management, and most of the user groups of CBFM (70.8%) showed respect for forest and local administration boundaries to reduce conflicts between interested groups.

3.2.4. Local Community Involvement in Habitat Restoration and Creation

Table 3. Commitment of local communities to local by-laws of CBFM.

Characteristics	Categories		Districts			Frequency
			Dangila	Fagita	Banja
How do you rate willingness of the members to obey the rules of the community in using the forest and its products?		Very high	17	13	0	7.2
		High	92	103	69	64.07
		Medium	33	49	34	28.15
		Low	0	2	0	0.48
Total			142	167	103	100
How do you rate the community’s member commitment in forest conservation and management?		Very high	40	63	52	36.4
		High	91	82	50	54.12
		Medium	11	21	1	8.00
		Low	0	1	0	0.24
Total			142	167	103	100
The users are fully willing to respect boundaries		Yes	117	104	71	70.8
		No	25	63	32	29.12
Total			142	167	103	100
X2			314.6*, df = 3, p = 0.000     * stands for statistical difference

shows the involvement of the local community in habitat restoration and creation in Dangila, Fagita, and Banja. The engagement levels are very low, low, medium, high, and very high. Dangila has nine “very low” engagements, Fagita three, and Banja two. This is only 3% of the total. This suggests that low involvement is rare, with Dangila having the highest incidence but still showing mild interest. There are even fewer “low” involvement cases, with three in Dangila, one in Fagita, and one in Banja, totaling 1%. This shows that low participation is rare in all the districts.

Table 4. Local community involvement in habitat restoration and creation.

Categories	Districts			Frequency
	Dangila	Fagita–Lokoma	Banja
Very low	9	3	2	3
Low	3	1	1	1
Medium	23	26	19	17
High	52	68	44	40
Very high	52	69	40	39
Frequency	34.5	40.5	25	100
X2	301*, df = 4, p = 0.000    * stands for statistical difference

shows Dangila, Fagita, and Banja have 23, 26, and 19 frequencies, respectively, making up 17% of “medium” engagements. This implies moderate community engagement, with Fagita leading. About 40% of the total—52 incidents in Dangila, 68 in Fagita, and 44 in Banja—are “high” engagement. This finding suggests substantial community involvement, notably in Fagita, which has the highest frequency. Dangila has 52 “very high” engagements, Fagita 69, and Banja 40, accounting for 39% of the total. These statistics show considerable engagement, with Fagita and Dangila leading the way.

With 40.5% engagement, Fagita is the most involved. Banja has the lowest engagement rate at 25%, followed by Dangila at 34.5%. Fagita has the greatest community involvement in habitat restoration and creation. The chi-squared test (X² = 301*, df = 4, p = 0.000) shows a statistically significant variation in community engagement throughout the districts, suggesting that the changes are not random.

Research has shown that Fagita has the most local community involvement in restoring and creating new habitats, followed by Dangila and Banja. Fagita has a higher frequency in all the important interaction categories, indicating considerable community involvement in habitat improvement. The observed differences are statistically significant according to the chi-square test. These data are essential for policy makers and stakeholders if they are to understand community involvement and to develop strategies to increase it, particularly in low-engagement regions.

3.3. Results Regarding Socioeconomic Interest in CBFM

There is a significant difference (with a chi-square value of (X²= 39.7*, df = 1, p = 0.000) in frequency between “Yes” and “No” across the three districts. Most respondents (76.7%) agreed that the local communities have social and economic interest in natural resource conservation (Figure 4). This interest significantly affects decision making regarding participation and engagement in initiatives to conserve natural resources.

This high level of agreement suggests that these interests significantly influence the decision-making processes related to participation and engagement in conservation initiatives.

(A)

Economic benefits of selling wildlife for the ecosystem

Table 5. Economic benefits of selling wildlife for the ecosystem.

Categories	Districts			Frequency
	Dangila	Fagita–Lokoma	Banja
Not significant	16	18	13	11
Low significance	55	67	33	38
Medium	46	49	30	30
Significant	8	10	15	8
Highly significant	15	23	12	13
Total	142	167	103	100
X2	142*, df = 4, p = 0.000        * stands for statistical difference

displays statistics regarding the perceived economic advantage derived by ecosystems from the sale of wildlife in three districts: Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja. The responses were classified into five categories of significance: not significant, low-significance, medium-significance, significant, and high-significance.

In Dangila, among the 142 respondents, 16 individuals (11%) perceived the economic gain as not significant, 55 individuals (38%) evaluated it as low-significance, 46 individuals (30%) viewed it as moderately significant, 8 individuals (8%) found it significant, and 17 individuals (13%) considered it highly significant. The distribution of responses indicates that there is a prevailing impression of relatively low-to-moderate importance when it comes to the economic advantages of selling wildlife. Out of the 167 respondents in Fagita–Lokoma, 18 individuals (11%) perceived the economic gain as not significant, 67 individuals (38%) assessed it as low-significance, 49 individuals (30%) viewed it as medium-significance, 10 individuals (8%) considered it significant, and 23 individuals (13%) believed it is highly significant. In Fagita–Lokoma, as in Dangila, most people considered the advantages of low-to-medium importance. However, there was a somewhat larger group of respondents who viewed benefits as highly important. In Banja, out of a total of 103 responses, 13 individuals (11%) perceived the advantage as not insignificant, 33 individuals (38%) rated it as low significance, 30 individuals (30%) viewed it as medium significance, 15 individuals (8%) found it substantial, and 12 individuals (13%) considered it highly significant. The pattern observed in Banja aligns with that observed in other districts, indicating a prevailing perspective of low-to-medium relevance. However, a greater proportion of respondents in Banja considered it to be significant than those in Dangila and Fagita–Lokoma. In general, the data indicates that in all three districts, the economic advantage of ecosystems derived from wildlife sales is mostly considered to be of low-to-medium significance. The chi-square statistics (X² = 142*, df = 4, p = 0.000) demonstrate a substantial and statistically significant disparity in perceptions among these districts, highlighting different levels of economic assessment and the potential impact on local economic policies related to wildlife sales.

(B)

Food from wildlife contributes to food discounts

The perceived contributions of wildlife to food discounts in Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja are shown in

Table 6. Wildlife food’s contributions to food discounts.

Categories	Districts			Frequency
	Dangila	Fagita–Lokoma	Banja
Not significant	7	12	15	8
Low significance	12	30	25	16
Medium	72	76	39	45
Significant	33	25	12	17
Highly significant	18	24	12	13
Total	142	167	103	100
X2	175.7*, df = 4, p = 0.000    * stands for statistical difference

. Responses were rated as not significant, low-significance, medium-significance, substantial, or extremely significant. In Dangila, out of 142 respondents, 7 (8%) considered wildlife’s contribution to food discounts as insignificant, 12 (16%) low, 72 (45%) medium, 33 (17%) significant, and 18 (13%) highly significant. Most Dangila respondents assessed wildlife’s contribution to food discounts as medium. Of the 167 replies in Fagita–Lokoma, 12 (8%) rated the contribution as not insignificant, 30 (16%) as low-significance, 76 (45%) as medium-significance, 25 (17%) as substantial, and 24 (13%) as highly significant. Similar to Dangila, most Fagita–Lokoma respondents reported medium significance. In Banja, 15 (8%) of 103 respondents deemed the contribution not significant, 25 (16%) low-significance, 39 (45%) medium-significance, 12 (17%) substantial, and 12 (13%) highly significant. Banja viewed it as having medium importance, similar to the other two districts. Most respondents in all three districts viewed wildlife’s contribution to food discounts as of medium significance. On average, 45% of respondents in each district chose medium significance. The chi-square result (X² = 175.7*, df = 4, p = 0.000) shows that districts regard wildlife’s contribution to food discounts differently. This heterogeneity implies that while medium significance is a widespread view, low, substantial, and extremely significant assessments vary, which can influence district-specific interventions (Table 5).

(C)

Economic benefit generated from timber

Table 7. Economic benefit generated from timber.

Categories	Districts			Frequency
	Dangila	Fagita–Lokoma	Banja
Low significance	12	30	25	16
Medium	72	76	39	45
Significant	33	25	12	17
Highly significant	18	24	12	13
Total	142	167	103	100
X2	261.5*, df = 3, p = 0.000     * stands for statistical difference

below displays the anticipated economic advantages of the ecosystems resulting from timber production in Dangila, Fagita–Lokoma, and Banja. Responses were classified into four categories based on their significance levels: low, medium, substantial, and highly significant. Among the 142 participants in Dangila, 2% perceived the advantage as insignificantly low, 13% considered it somewhat significant, 55% considered it substantial, and 31% regarded it as highly important. Among the 167 respondents in Fagita–Lokoma, 2% considered it to have low significance, 13% considered it to have medium relevance, 55% considered it to have substantial significance, and 31% considered it to have highly significant significance. Among the 103 respondents in Banja, 2% perceived it as having low significance, 13% as having medium significance, 55% as having substantial significance, and 31% as having highly significant significance. Overall, most individuals in each district perceived the economic impact of timber as substantial or highly substantial. The chi-square statistics (X² = 261.5*, df = 3, p = 0.000) demonstrated a considerable disparity in perceptions within the districts, emphasizing the universal acknowledgement of timber’s economic importance.

(D)

Benefits from tourism for the economic ecosystem

As shown in

Table 8. Benefits of the economic ecosystem for tourism.

Categories	Districts			Frequency
	Dangila	Fagita–Lokoma	Banja
Low significance	7	7	9	6
Medium	35	44	27	26
Significant	44	56	33	32
Highly significant	56	60	34	36
Total	142	167	103	100
X2	24*, df = 3, p = 0.000     * stands for statistical difference

below, low significance occurs only 6% of the time in Dangila, Fagita Lokoma, and Banja. The economic ecosystem appears to have had little impact on the tourism industry. Medium-significance features are more common, with 26% of Dangila, Fagita Lokoma, and Banja frequencies (at 35, 44, and 27). The tourism ecosystem benefits from these moderate factors. Significant features are much more common, with 44 in Dangila, 56 in Fagita Lokoma, and 33 in Banja, (32% of the total), indicating a major tourist attraction. Highly significant features are most common, with 56 in Dangila, 60 in Fagita Lokoma, and 34 in Banja (36%). These key elements make these locations popular as tourist destinations. According to the chi-square test (X² = 24*, df = 3, p = 0.000), these characteristics vary significantly between regions, showing non-random variance. Dangila, Fagita Lokoma, and Banja have many tourism-boosting qualities. Fagita Lokoma is appealing because of its high prevalence in important areas. Tourism in Dangila and Banja is promising. This analysis will help stakeholders to promote and improve tourism in these areas.

4. Discussion

The results of this study indicate significant differences in community involvement, knowledge of conservation regulations, and participation in habitat restoration among the three districts analyzed. Fagita–Lokoma consistently showed the highest levels of participation and ecological awareness, whereas Banja had lower engagement levels. These differences highlight the crucial influence of local governance structures, economic dependence on forests, and community-level incentives on the conservation outcomes. Fagita–Lokoma’s superior performance can be linked to stronger local institutions and greater reliance on forest resources for livelihoods. This finding is consistent with global evidence, suggesting that communities with more effective governance and clear benefit-sharing mechanisms tend to achieve better biodiversity outcomes in community forestry [44,45,46]. In contrast, diminished institutional capacity and less reliance on forests in Banja might explain the lower levels of participation observed there. Our findings further highlight that socioeconomic factors, particularly those related to timber, wildlife, and tourism, are significant motivators for local conservation. This conclusion supports previous research in Latin America and Asia, which showed that integrating conservation with local economic benefits boosts community involvement and fosters long-term forest sustainability [47,48,49]. In the Ethiopian context, forest management strategies must be integrated with concrete livelihood opportunities to ensure the sustainability of biodiversity outcomes. Another significant insight is that although communities generally perceived the costs of conservation as low to moderate, they reported only moderate economic benefits. This discrepancy between perceived benefits and conservation efforts mirrors the challenges identified in other African studies, where weak market access and limited institutional support reduce the potential of community-based forest management to provide equitable economic returns [50]. For Ethiopia, this underscores the importance of developing stronger policy mechanisms that integrate community forestry with sustainable value chains and ecotourism initiatives. Furthermore, the findings herein confirm that awareness of environmental laws and policies is not uniformly distributed across the districts. Higher awareness in Fagita Lokoma translated into stronger engagement in habitat restoration. This demonstrates the importance of legal literacy and policy outreach as enablers for biodiversity conservation. Prior research in Asia and Africa has emphasized that the effective dissemination of conservation laws enhances compliance and strengthens collective action [51,52]. These findings collectively provide insights on both local and global scales. At the local level, they emphasize the importance of inclusive governance and aligning livelihoods within community-based forestry projects. Globally, they support broader evidence that community-based forest management can lead to positive biodiversity outcomes, but only when institutional capacity, community incentives, and socioecological conditions are favorable.

4.1. Respect for Local By-Laws

Our research indicates that a significant proportion of the participants (91.7%) acknowledged local laws concerning conservation and management. Additionally, 70.8% specifically respected the boundaries of forests and local administrations to minimize conflicts among different interested groups. This high level of local compliance highlights that the enforcement of by-laws is already an operational aspect of community-based forest management in the study area. These findings align with previous research [53,54], which supports the idea that fostering community engagement, adherence to by-laws, and respecting boundaries are essential steps toward successful CBFM projects in Ethiopia. These efforts can lead to better conservation outcomes and benefit both ecosystems and the local wellbeing of future generations.

4.2. Socioeconomic Interest

In our study, 76.7% of participants concurred that local communities have socioeconomic stakes in preserving natural resources, especially wildlife, which greatly affects their involvement in conservation efforts. This finding differs from the results of Zimbabwe’s CAMPFIRE program [55], where communities had negative perceptions owing to minimal economic gains and limited management involvement. Our findings indicate that, unlike CAMPFIRE, communities in Northwest Ethiopia recognize tangible benefits such as those from timber, wildlife, and tourism, which enhance their willingness to engage. Additionally, our results are consistent with those of [54], who highlighted that socioeconomic and institutional factors significantly influence community attitudes toward managing natural resources. Overall, these comparisons underscore that, when communities see clear advantages and equitable participation, they are more likely to develop positive attitudes and engage in conservation.

In addition, the study results by [54] show that 92.19% of respondents agreed that they were responsible for protecting and managing natural resources, and 83% had already accepted the Participatory Natural Resource Management program. Demographic, socioeconomic, institutional, and cognitive factors significantly influenced attitudes towards PNRM, its implementation, and responsibility to protect and manage resources. Creating public awareness is crucial in enhancing the sustainable use of natural resources. Furthermore, Sinthumule [56] analyzed community attitudes towards wetlands in Duthuni Village, South Africa, revealing significant implications for sustainability. Wetlands play a significant role in human lives by providing water, fishing, plant resources, crop production, and valuable land for grazing. Most respondents (98.1%) had a positive attitude towards wetland conservation with ethical motivations. Local communities were willing to donate money and vote to councilors who promised to protect wetlands, offering hope for sustainable utilization of these valuable resources.

Conservation efforts in protected areas (PAs) in 25 European and African countries face threats to biodiversity, despite their favorable socioeconomic context. Despite these efforts, it is not possible to completely offset the threats or prevent a decline in biodiversity. To halt decline, a 35% increase in conservation efforts may be required over a decade. Adopting sustainable design principles that consider the socioecological context of PAs could help integrate them into sustainable development [57]. In addition, this study [57] explored the synergies between biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic development in protected areas (PAs). It found that 62% of PAs had synergies, with significant differences between African and European PAs. Sustainability in conserving biodiversity is strongly correlated with empowerment of management and local community involvement in planning and decision-making processes. PAs should thus invest in these factors to promote sustainability.

Most respondents (65%) agreed that the cost of natural resource conservation is of low to medium significance. This suggests that for local communities, the cost of wildlife conservation is not a major deterrent to participation in conservation efforts. Significant efforts are being made to engage local communities in conservation efforts, despite the perceived cost being a minor barrier. This indicates that underlying factors such as economic conditions, awareness levels, and attitudes towards conservation may play a role in these efforts.

Our research indicates that local communities recognize the socioeconomic advantages of forests not just from timber and wildlife but also through tourism, with 36% considering tourism-related ecosystem benefits “highly significant” (Table 7). These findings highlight the potential of ecotourism to enhance conservation incentives in Northwest Ethiopia. Similar patterns have been noted in the Bale Mountains National Park [58], where ecotourism aids conservation efforts but faces challenges due to limited community involvement and unequal distribution of benefits. Likewise, research from the Wenchi highlands and other Ethiopian locations [59,60] highlights both the opportunities in and obstacles to employing ecotourism as a conservation strategy. By placing our findings within this broader Ethiopian framework, we stress that while local communities in the Awi Zone already acknowledge the benefits of tourism, ensuring equitable distribution and sustainable management is vital for achieving long-term biodiversity goals.

Biodiversity conservation in the Wenchi Highlands faces significant challenges and threats, including loss of biodiversity. This study revealed that most respondents use natural resources for firewood and cattle grazing, with a positive attitude towards conservation. Major threats include land use changes, exotic plantations, soil erosion, illegal land grabbing, and burning of ericaceous belts. Opportunities such as unique topography, rich flora and fauna, recent global and regional recognition, and ecotourism development projects offer potential conservation solutions. Urgent conservation priorities and actions are needed to address these threats and ensure the preservation of Wenchi montane forests and wildlife [61]. Protected areas in Ethiopia are crucial for maintaining biological diversity and for contributing to economic development. However, local willingness to conserve these areas is limited because of a lack of benefits. Mitigation and prevention strategies are required for sustainable wildlife management [60].

4.3. Limitation

This limitation of the research is concentrated on three districts within the Awi Zone of Northwest Ethiopia; although these districts offer valuable insights, the results may not be entirely applicable to other areas with different ecological, cultural, or institutional settings. In addition, the analysis is based on quantitative survey data, and future research could benefit from incorporating qualitative methods such as focus group discussions or ethnographic techniques to capture more detailed perspectives on community engagement and conservation practices.

4.4. Implications

This study’s findings have significant policy and practical implications. Primarily, they emphasize that effective community-based forest management requires not only the devolution of management rights but also the enhancement of local governance structures and the alignment of conservation objectives with community livelihood interests. Policy makers should prioritize initiatives that support capacity building, raise awareness of conservation laws, and integrate customary governance systems with formal policies. The observed variations among districts indicate that conservation interventions must be tailored to specific contexts to address the unique socioeconomic drivers and institutional capacities of each community. Furthermore, this study highlights the potential of community-based forest management to contribute to Ethiopia’s commitment to biodiversity conservation and climate resilience, offering insights pertinent to other sub-Saharan African countries confronting similar challenges. Beyond their local importance, the results from Northwest Ethiopia have wider implications for sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions. First, they reveal that the success of biodiversity in community-managed forests is heavily influenced by the interplay between local governance capabilities and the community’s reliance on forest resources for their livelihoods. This situation is not exclusive to Ethiopia. It is also evident in countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, and Nepal, where the effectiveness of local institutions often dictates conservation outcomes. Second, the research emphasizes the necessity of aligning economic incentives, such as timber harvesting, wildlife utilization, and ecotourism, with ecological goals. Similarly, experiences from Latin America and Asia indicate that when local livelihoods are visibly improved, community involvement in conservation efforts becomes more sustainable. Third, the differences observed across districts highlight the importance of adopting context-specific strategies rather than one-size-fits-all solutions, a lesson particularly pertinent to the varied socioecological landscapes of the Global South. By placing Ethiopian experiences within these broader discussions, this study offers insights that can guide the development and execution of community-based forest management in other regions that face similar issues.

5. Conclusions

This study explores the biodiversity impacts and socioeconomic aspects of community-based forest management (CBFM) across three districts in Northwest Ethiopia. The results reveal notable differences in community involvement, understanding of conservation laws, and participation in habitat restoration, with Fagita–Lokoma showing significantly higher engagement levels than Dangila and Banja. These disparities seem to be linked to more robust local governance and a greater reliance on forest resources. Overall, the findings highlight that CBFM can produce beneficial biodiversity and socioeconomic results when local livelihood needs are effectively aligned with ecological objectives through inclusive and well-supported governance systems.

Although this study did not establish detailed hypotheses, its main contribution is an empirical account of biodiversity outcomes and regional variations in CBFM. Owing to the scarcity of baseline data in the region, a descriptive approach was deemed most suitable. Defining complex causal relationships would require more extensive longitudinal or experimental research, which is beyond the scope of this study. However, the documented patterns, especially the differences among the three districts, point to significant problem areas and suggest directions for future hypothesis-driven research.

By highlighting these regional disparities, this study not only contributes to the limited empirical evidence on the biodiversity outcomes of CBFM in Ethiopia but also lays the groundwork for more in-depth investigations. We hope that our findings will encourage further research aimed at unraveling the causal mechanisms connecting governance structures, livelihood incentives, and biodiversity outcomes, thereby enhancing both theoretical and practical insights into participatory forest management.

This study investigates the biodiversity outcomes and socioeconomic dimensions of community-based forest management (CBFM) in three districts of Northwest Ethiopia. The findings indicate significant variations in community engagement, awareness of conservation laws, and participation in habitat restoration, with Fagita–Lokoma exhibiting notably higher levels of involvement than Dangila and Banja. These differences appear to be associated with stronger local governance structures and a greater dependence on forest resources. Overall, the results underscore that CBFM can yield positive biodiversity and socioeconomic outcomes when local livelihood interests are effectively aligned with ecological goals through inclusive and well-supported governance frameworks. Future research should explore the long-term impact of CBFM on biodiversity and the role of institutional diversity in shaping effective conservation.