Recent Advances in Forest Ecosystem Services and Landscape Design

1. Introduction—Theoretical Background and Current Knowledge in the Field

In a world of constant change, ecosystem services are becoming increasingly important to support the rapid demographic growth of recent decades. From tangible ecosystem services, such as food, water, timber, fuel resources, to intangible ones with recreational value and spiritual enrichment, all have a vital role, especially since most of them are subject to increasing anthropogenic pressure. Ecosystem services provide an extensive series of direct and indirect benefits, designed to meet the diverse needs of humanity [1].

Specialists in the field identify four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services [2].

Provisioning services refer to the various ecosystems, differing from one another, that cater to human needs. It comprises the essential elements for human life (fish, water, wood, minerals and rocks for construction, and a broad palette of medicinal plants such as berries and mushrooms) for human health [2].

Regulating services contribute to maintaining the environment in balanced parameters by providing climate regulation effects, filtering pollutants to improve air and water quality, preventing soil erosion, and enhancing soil fertility and crop production [3].

Cultural services create opportunities for recreational and well-being activities, such as hiking, birdwatching, fishing, and camping, which contribute to a high quality of mental and physical health, foster aesthetic appreciation and inspiration, promote overall well-being, and ultimately cultivate a connection with nature [4,5,6].

Supporting services, although having indirect benefits, play a crucial role by enabling interdependencies among ecology, economy, and society [7].

Landscape design is the art of combining multiple features by arranging and modifying the landscape to create new outdoor spaces that offer both functional and aesthetic pleasure while respecting general principles such as unity, balance, focalization, rhythm, line, proportion, and simplicity [8,9]. These actions involve a good combination of artistry and scientific planning to improve their functionality [10].

This Special Issue features 15 papers authored by 83 contributors from 11 countries, prominently including China, Australia, the USA, Sweden, Canada, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Bangladesh, and Romania, all within the fields of forestry and landscape design.

This Special Issue, “Forest Ecosystem Services and Landscape Design”, aims to present recent advances in our knowledge of ecosystem services and landscape design in an integrated, multi-, and interdisciplinary approach. The fundamental core concepts are an essential component of understanding the following:

(1)

Management of forest ecosystems in urban landscapes;

(2)

Structured diversity and species composition;

(3)

Effects of natural and anthropogenic disturbances on forests;

(4)

Cultural ecosystem services in protected areas for human well-being.

2. Methodological Innovations and Strengths

Recent developments in forest ecosystem services and landscape design have led to continuous methodological improvement and adaptation. Research papers from this Special Issue have employed various methods, including advanced spatial statistics, remote sensing, and GIS, to investigate the value of ecosystem services (ESV) [4,11,12,13]. For big data collection, multiple sources were inquired about, including online questionnaires, surveys, and crowdsourced data collection. These were used as an alternative way to analyze and interpret the main results obtained (e.g., to quantify the tourists’ perception of recreational value in large urban areas) [14,15,16]. Another example enhances traditional assessment methods such as the fuzzy Delphi method, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), and the entropy method [7].

Allometric growth equations, considering multiple parameters for several dominant species, were developed using breast height diameter (DBH), tree height, and crown width to illustrate how tree structure influences composition [7]. Different diversity indices, such as Simpson and Shannon–Wiener, along with species evenness indices like Pielou and Alatalo, were employed to assess plant community diversity in both tropical and temperate forests [5,17].

Among the strengths of the methodology in this Special Issue is the application of forest landscape modeling to quantify seed harvesting effects at unprecedented spatial and temporal scales. The use of LANDIS PRO facilitated the simulation of the synergistic effects of population dynamics, seed dispersal, and harvesting across large temporal scales and spatial extents. Additionally, a creative method for simulating seed harvesting was developed in the model by harvesting young cohorts of Korean pine, described in an innovative disturbance simulation [8]. The disturbance index (DI) provides a more detailed assessment of perturbation levels by combining the percentage of cut stems, tree canopy openness, shrub/herb canopy openness, and the percentage of bare ground [3]. The pebble distribution method, used as a participatory rural appraisal tool, enables local participants to quantify the importance of the ecosystem services. The study shifts from monetary valuation toward a regional, perception-based, consensus-driven assessment, capturing complex, multidimensional valuation of services that often lack direct market equivalents [9]. Photovoice walks enable participants to visually express their preferences and perceptions by photographing elements they find, providing more detailed insights than forced-choice rankings alone, through digital storytelling for positive social change [10]. The density-dependent matrix growth model has been applied and calibrated not only for aboveground biomass (AGB), but also for simulating the recreation value, which is a primary output. A different approach to analyzing cultural ecosystem services is provided by structural equation modeling, which demonstrates the dimensions of visitors’ recreation experiences [6,11].

After screening the 15 articles from this Special Issue, the research strengths on various topics were underlined. First, it began with the systematic approaches of local communities [7] and multidimensional aspects of ecosystem services [11], followed by quantitative and comparative research papers on landscape design [9] (

Table 1. Strengths of the papers published in this Special Issue.

Strengths	Reference(s)
Assessing both above- and belowground services simultaneously provide a comprehensive perspective on the ecosystem.	[3]
Multimethod integration provides updated, region-specific ecosystem service value coefficients for a more accurate valuation.	[4]
A systematic approach was employed to investigate the relationships between structure and diversity through extensive field sampling.	[5]
Develop a technical method to monitor changes in mangrove cover.	[6]
Systematic approach—a holistic framework that considers protected areas (PAs), local communities, and tourism as an interconnected complex system.	[7]
Methodological rigor integrates empirical field data with advanced modeling techniques, supported by multiple replications.	[8]
Quantitative and comparative analysis using different statistical tests (Kruskal–Wallis).	[9]
Clear linkage of findings to practical forest management and communication strategies.	[10]
The multidimensional input-output approach is comprehensive, including capital, land, labor, climate, and five key ecosystem services.	[11]
Practical guidance for improving forest park management and sustainable tourism development practices based on specific experiences and gender considerations.	[12]
Addresses the challenge of low survival rates in the artificial restoration process by proposing a model-supported monitoring and evaluation framework for the future.	[13]
Innovative use of crowdsourced social media data and complex spatial and statistical analysis.	[14]
Innovative research design underlying ecological patterns with psychological profiling.	[15]
Provides a methodological guide for researchers and policymakers interested in the field of community forestry.	[16]
Silvicultural planning based on the public preferences in post-mining sites.	[17]

).

3. Conclusions

The collection of papers from this Special Issue provides valuable findings into the multidisciplinary pillars of forest management. The findings are gathered into four categories:

(1)

Ecosystem services and social perception to quantify spatial patterns of recreational ecosystem services value (ESV) in urban environments;

(2)

Forest structure and restoration are essential for tree diversity and ecological stability;

(3)

Management of protected areas (PAs)—use different methods to increase the effectiveness of the forest ecosystem services through systematic monitoring and restoration for forest conservation;

(4)

Human well-being and recreational activities—the multifunctional role of the urban green environment for both environmental education and a positive attitude toward landscape and recreational satisfaction.

Overall, these contributions advocate for a complex approach to ecosystem service value and forest management, emphasizing the crucial role of well-being for local communities.