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Article

Contrasting Non-Timber Forest Products’ Case Studies in Underdeveloped Areas in China

by
Qin Qiao
1,
Shuo Lei
1,
Wenting Zhang
1,
Guomei Shao
1,
Yong Sun
2,* and
Yongwei Han
1,*
1
State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
2
School of Public Administration, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2024, 15(9), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091629
Submission received: 2 August 2024 / Revised: 6 September 2024 / Accepted: 9 September 2024 / Published: 15 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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Abstract

Enhancing the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry has dual significance for both the management of local forest resources and socio-economic development. This paper adopts a systems theory perspective to construct an analytical model for the sustainable development of non-timber forest products, based on a “social-economic-natural” framework. By analyzing case studies of non-timber forest products industry sustainability from four underdeveloped counties in China, the paper derives the following main conclusions and insights: The sustainability of non-timber forest products development models is influenced by factors such as resource endowments and institutional environments and includes both single and composite models. Underdeveloped regions can achieve considerable sustainability in the development of non-timber forest products, but this requires a rational allocation of six key elements—policy, model, stakeholders, natural resources, funding, and technology—to stimulate industry growth. To promote the sustainable development of this industry, optimization should be pursued across five aspects: “policy leadership and top-level design to guide industry development”, “selection of appropriate development models based on local natural endowments and socio-economic foundations”, “large enterprise-driven mechanisms to form multi-stakeholder interest connections”, “focus on product technology research and development, and establishment of technical training mechanisms”, and “market-driven funding to develop product sales markets”.

1. Introduction

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) refer to biological resources, both plant and animal, obtained from natural forests, plantations, forestlands, and woodlands, excluding timber (https://www.fao.org/forestry-fao/nwfp/85685/en/, accessed on 8 September 2024). Approximately 80% of the population in developing countries relies on the collection of NTFPs to meet health and nutritional needs [1], highlighting the socio-economic importance of these products. The primary models for these products include underforest cultivation, underforest animal husbandry, and forest tourism (Figure 1). The development of this industry is globally recognized as a key approach for achieving sustainable forest management and ecological conservation, as well as an important measure for regional economic development [2,3]. This is particularly significant for underdeveloped regions [4,5,6], where the industry can transform resource advantages into economic benefits, reduce poverty [7], and improve local living standards [8,9], thus achieving balanced economic, social, and ecological benefits [10,11]. Therefore, the continued promotion of the non-timber forest products industry is of great importance.
However, the sustainable development of the non-timber forest products industry faces challenges [12], and the issue of sustainability within this industry deserves attention. In favorable conditions, the development of this industry can align with the overarching goal of sustainable development. Nevertheless, research has indicated that several factors, including potential destructive harvesting, wildfires, resource dependency, and a lack of knowledge in resource management, impact the ecological sustainability of this industry [13,14]. Factors such as the development of the industry chain and the low level of marketization affect the economic sustainability of the industry. Additionally, the absence of policy support may hinder the social sustainability of the industry [15]. Therefore, promoting the sustainable development of the non-timber forest products industry has emerged as a critical issue worthy of attention [16,17].
Research on the sustainability of non-timber forest products primarily focuses on three areas: the definition and evaluation of industry sustainability, factors influencing industry sustainability, and the impact of industry development on regional sustainability. In terms of the definition and evaluation of sustainability, Stanley et al. proposed that the sustainability of non-timber forest products industry should encompass both ecological and economic dimensions; their evaluation of 101 studies on sustainability of this industry indicated that about two-thirds of the studies considered non-timber forest products industry harvesting to be sustainable both ecologically and economically, while approximately one-fifth considered it ecologically unsustainable [17]. Crook et al. argued that the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry included both ecological and economic aspects, noting that low prices could lead to overharvesting [13], while Belcher et al. suggested that high prices and commercialization could introduce ecological and livelihood risks, necessitating a comprehensive consideration of both ecological and economic sustainability [18]. Matias et al. investigated beekeeping in Palawan, Philippines, suggesting that the development of the non-timber forest products industry should not only focus on profit margins but also on social-cultural practices and ecological sustainability [19]. Chamberlain et al. pointed out that non-timber forest products were rarely integrated into forest management, and the sustainability of this industry development should include socio-cultural, economic, and ecological factors, requiring extensive research for effective sustainable management [20]. De Mello et al. reviewed the social and ecological dimensions of the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry, highlighting a lack of focus on socio-cultural dimensions in existing research [21]; they suggested that frameworks such as the social-ecological systems framework [22,23], political ecology [24], land change science [25], and social innovation [26] could guide future research on the sustainability of this industry.
Regarding factors influencing the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry, Berkes emphasized that improving forest management and maintaining ecosystem adaptability and responsiveness were key to promoting the ecological sustainability of these products [27]. Heinen and Shrestha-Acharya highlighted the importance of considering stakeholder relationships and formulating national strategies for non-timber forest products industries to support sustainable development in Nepal [28]. Pandey et al. also asserted that support through policy and market management was necessary for the sustainable development of non-timber forest products [15]. Yadav and Misra developed a market information system to help remove market imperfections by providing information on demand and supply to collectors and growers, thereby enhancing the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry [29]. Hernandez-Barrios et al. assessed the sustainability of Chamaedorea palm leaves, finding that moderate harvesting levels contributed to sustainability, with community management, fair markets, and effective communication among stakeholders being crucial factors [30]. Albers et al. and Steele et al. highlight that while the development of non-timber forest products is a significant source of rural livelihoods, it may lead to forest degradation. Additionally, a higher local dependence on non-timber forest products may negatively affect the ecological sustainability of the area [31,32]. Schunko et al.’s case study in South Tyrol (Alto Adige), Italy, demonstrates that factors such as organic agricultural management techniques, organic certification, and the availability of training support the commercialization of non-timber forest products, whereas agricultural intensification and pesticide pollution are detrimental to the industry’s commercialization [33]. Nguyen et al. found that factors such as farmers’ production experience, income, technical training, and policy knowledge significantly impacted the development of non-timber forest products industries in Vietnam [34].
Regarding the impact of industry development on regional sustainability, Taghouti et al. found that non-timber forest products were increasingly contributing to the livelihoods and food security of local residents in Tunisia, playing a significant role in poverty reduction for households [35]. Similarly, Musa et al. concluded from their study on non-timber forest products in Sudan that these products contributed to the income of 50% of local households, influencing local sustainable livelihoods. They recommended imparting sustainable harvesting and management practices to rural communities [36]. Both Di Cori et al. and Huber et al. emphasize the importance of non-timber forest product development for the sustainable economic and social development of local areas, highlighting that assessing the benefits of these products is crucial for effective forest policy decisions [37,38]. Rovira et al. suggested that developing non-timber forest products could enhance the regional geographical brand, thereby impacting local sustainable ecological tourism [39].
In summary, research on the sustainability of non-timber forest products industries has predominantly focused on their definitions, evaluation, and associated influencing factors, with relatively few case studies exploring the intrinsic mechanisms of sustainability models for this industry. While considerable discussion has focused on factors influencing the development of such products and conceptual models affecting its commercialization, there is a lack of model discussions from the “socio-economic-natural” sustainability perspective. Most studies have been conducted at the national or regional level, with fewer focusing on county-level research. As counties serve as key units for the implementation of local government policies and play a crucial role in regional development, they present unique research value.
In China, the sustainable development of the non-timber forest products industry has received significant attention from the government. Both the central and local governments have implemented a series of policies to promote the growth of this industry. The total industrial output value has increased from 457.5 billion yuan in 2013 to over 1 trillion yuan currently, and more than 100 non-timber forest products industry demonstration bases have been certified nationwide [40]. However, current research on these types of products in China is primarily focused on news reports, and there is a lack of in-depth analysis on the sustainable development mechanisms of this industry in the academic community. Additionally, existing studies on the sustainable development of these products mainly concentrate on ecological and economic sustainability, with relatively less attention paid to social sustainability [21], especially the lack of focus on policy support mechanisms [41,42]. Previous research has extensively examined the sustainability evaluation of these products and related influencing factors, but there is a scarcity of analysis on the inherent mechanisms of industrial sustainability [43]. To address these research gaps, this paper selects four representative cases of non-timber forest products development in underdeveloped regions of China. It constructs an analytical framework for the “social-economic-natural” sustainable development of these products. This framework aims to compensate for the limited focus on social factors in existing studies and strengthen the analysis of the inherent mechanisms of industrial sustainability. Through a comparative analysis of the cases, this paper attempts to answer the following questions: Firstly, what factors influence the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry development? Secondly, how can the sustainability of industry development be enhanced? Theoretically, this study contributes to enriching the research on the sustainability of non-timber forest products industries. Practically, it helps improve the sustainability of these industries in underdeveloped counties and enhances the level of regional sustainable development.

2. Materials and Methods

The case-study method is typically used to explain existing or emerging phenomena and is well suited for answering “how” and “why” questions [44]. This method is particularly relevant to the investigation of sustainability models for non-timber forest products explored in this paper, making it appropriate for addressing questions such as “How can the sustainability of non-timber forest products industry development be enhanced in underdeveloped areas?” and “What factors influence the sustainability of non-timber forest products industry development?” Consequently, this paper employed the case-study method. Furthermore, within case analysis, multi-case studies offer more robust and generalizable theoretical results compared to single-case studies, as they summarize patterns observed across most or all cases, thereby enhancing the reliability and validity of the research [45]. Given the complex and broad range of factors involved in the sustainability mechanisms of these products, a multi-case analysis is advantageous for comparison and synthesis. Thus, this paper utilized a multi-case analysis approach.

2.1. Case Analysis Framework

Based on the previous literature review and the characteristics of the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry, the relevant theories for the sustainability of these industries include the “social-ecological” systems theory, political ecology theory, and the “social-economic-natural” composite ecosystem theory. The “social-ecological” systems theory attempts to depict the natural environment and human society as a complex, coupled system, focusing on aspects such as vulnerability [46], adaptability [47], and resilience [48] to explore pathways for adaptive governance of “social-ecological” systems [49]. The political ecology theory emphasizes that research on human–environment relationships should incorporate political and economic factors, integrating power distribution into environmental studies [50]. The “social-economic-natural” composite ecosystem theory addresses several issues related to natural resource development that are directly or indirectly linked to social systems, economic systems, and natural environments, creating complex interactions among these systems [51].
Drawing from the systems perspective proposed by “social-ecological” systems theory and integrating the “social-economic-natural” composite ecosystem theory and political ecology theory, this paper presents a case analysis framework for the sustainability models of the non-timber forest products industry. Specifically, the sustainable development of this industry is conceptualized as a “socio-economic-natural” system. The impacts on the sustainable development of the non-timber forest products industry can be categorized into three aspects: (1) social sustainability (e.g., poverty reduction, protection of unique forest products), (2) economic sustainability (e.g., sustainability of products and market sales), and (3) natural sustainability (e.g., natural endowments, protection of forest resources). This paper identifies six key factors most relevant to the sustainable development of these industries from these three aspects: policy factors, model factors, technology factors, stakeholder factors, funding factors, and natural factors. Policy factors refer to the local government’s support and incentives for exploring sustainable development in this industry; model factors pertain to the choice of development models such as forest undergrowth cultivation, farming, and tourism; technological factors address how to apply scientific and technological advancements to the sustainable development of this industry; stakeholder factors involve stimulating the internal motivation of diverse participants; funding factors focus on acquiring financial support for sustainable development; and natural factors relate to the natural resources supporting the sustainable development of this industry. Overall, advancing the sustainable development of this industry faces three core issues: first, governments need to improve policy frameworks to guide sustainable development; second, mechanisms for sustainable development must be established to optimize resource allocation; and third, broad mobilization of various stakeholders is required to enhance their internal motivation (see Figure 2).

2.2. Sample Selection

To ensure the representativeness of the cases, this study selected four county-level cases in China focusing on the sustainability of non-timber forest products industries: Jinping County in Guizhou Province (western case), Guangning County in Guangdong Province (southern case), Qingyuan County in Zhejiang Province (eastern case), and Kalaqin Banner in Inner Mongolia (northern case). The selection of these four cases was based on the following considerations: First, all four case-study areas were counties, which were comparable in China’s administrative divisions, providing good comparability for policy tools. Second, with the exception of Qingyuan County in Zhejiang, which was a provincially underdeveloped county, the other three counties were designated as “nationally impoverished counties” by the Chinese government, aligning with the study’s focus on “underdeveloped counties”. Third, these four cases represented exemplary practices in the exploration of these industries in Chinese counties. They had demonstrated notable sustainability in ecological protection, social poverty alleviation, and agricultural economic development, and had been recognized as provincial or national “Demonstration Bases for non-timber forest products Industries”, offering valuable insights for research on sustainable development models for these industries. Fourth, these four case-study areas were located in the western, southern, eastern, and northern regions of China. The natural endowments and economic conditions of these areas varied significantly, leading to notable differences in the development models of the industry. This variation facilitated the differentiated analysis and comparison (see Figure 3 and Table 1).
In gathering case materials, this paper followed the principles of case study proposed by Yin [52]. To avoid potential biases and subjectivity in data collection, diverse data sources were adopted to minimize this impact [52]. Additionally, the study strived to integrate journal articles, government documents (from government websites and related reports), and field research as accurately as possible. During field research, interviews were conducted with forestry departments of county governments, ecological environment departments, local businesses, cooperatives, and farmers. Field visits to underforest economic industry bases were also arranged to ensure comprehensive, diversified, and effective data collection.

3. Case Results and Discussion

According to the case analysis framework, we first conducted single-case studies on four cases—analyzing the specific practices of each case to identify the elements influencing the sustainability of non-timber forest products industries. Building on the insights gained from these single-case analyses, we then performed a comparative study across multiple cases. This comparison highlights commonalities and differences among relevant elements, summarizes the characteristics affecting the sustainability of this industry, and proposes optimization strategies.

3.1. Single-Case Analysis

3.1.1. Western Case: Development of Non-Timber Forest Products Industry in Jinping County

Jinping County is located in the eastern part of Guizhou Province, with a forest coverage rate of 72.18% and air quality classified as excellent on over 99% of the days each year. In recent years, Jinping County has taken multiple measures to activate forest resources, innovating in forest-based practices such as cultivating Dendrobium on trees, beekeeping, raising geese, growing Chinese medicinal herbs under the forest canopy, and developing forest-based wellness tourism. Outside the forest, the county has implemented a development model focusing on forest product processing, establishing an efficient linkage between the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries in forest-based economic development. The main approaches include (Figure 4).
Exploring the cultivation of Dendrobium on living trees in the forest: Through attracting investments, leading enterprises are introduced, adopting an organizational approach of “leading enterprises + state-owned entities + cooperatives + impoverished households” to develop the cultivation of Dendrobium on living trees in the forest. Technical experts from universities and research institutes are introduced to improve the cultivation techniques of Dendrobium officinale. This has led to the establishment of a forestry (Dendrobium)-integrated industrial park, realizing the integrated industrial development of Dendrobium tissue culture, domestication and seedling raising, greenhouse cultivation, scaffolding cultivation, and near-wild cultivation on living trees. Currently, a Dendrobium domestication and seedling base covering more than 26 hectares has been established, cultivating 15 million seedlings. The county’s near-wild Dendrobium cultivation has reached 846.67 hectares, with a scale ranking at the forefront of the country.
Vigorously developing beekeeping in the forest: Relying on its superior resource advantages, Jinping County organizes beekeeping technical training through enterprise-driven, cooperative organization, and farmer participation, promoting the industrialization, scale, and standardization of beekeeping. Currently, there are 6 beekeeping cooperatives and over 120 individual specialized households in the county, with over 11,000 boxes of Chinese honeybees, an annual output of over 150 tons of high-quality honey, and an annual output value of over 15 million yuan.
Exploring integrated planting and breeding under the forest: Making full use of forest resources to develop industries such as Chinese herbal medicine cultivation, goose breeding, and chicken farming under the forest, effectively improving the utilization rate of forest resources and economic benefits. Currently, the area of Chinese herbal medicines under the forest has reached 7020 hectares, with 260,000 ecological geese in stock, 600,000 goose eggs produced, 1.16 million goose chicks raised, 1.1 million geese slaughtered, and an annual sales volume of over 20 million yuan. Jinping’s scale of goose farming under the forest ranks at the forefront of the province.
Exploring leisure and healthcare tourism within the forest: Deepening the development of a tourism resource-integrated industrial park in Jinping County, over 400,000 flower and fruit seedlings such as torreya and cherry blossoms have been distributed free of charge to the masses to beautify the environment through planting.
Exploring deep processing outside the forest: Relying on leading enterprises, vigorously promoting the deep processing of Dendrobium beer, Dendrobium beverages, Dendrobium daily chemical products, goose meat processing, and badminton production, expanding the two major industrial chains of Dendrobium and ecological goose, and improving product added value. Currently, Jinping County has established a commercial goose slaughterhouse and an 18,000-cubic-meter refrigerated logistics warehouse, achieving a monthly production of 300,000 dozen badmintons and an annual output value of 288 million yuan.
To advance the development of the non-timber forest products, industry, Guizhou Province has issued the “Opinions on Accelerating the High-Quality Development of the non-timber forest products industry” and established a provincial leadership group to expedite the high-quality development of this industry, thereby promoting its advancement at a high level. In Jinping County, investment attraction has secured 7.6 billion yuan, with state-owned funds totaling over 400 million yuan. The county has carried out organic certification on an area of 6473.33 hectares, obtaining 25 organic certificates for products such as konjac and tea. Subsidies of 29,985 yuan per hectare are provided for the cultivation of Dendrobium officinale under the forest. Additionally, tax reductions and exemptions are offered for agricultural enterprises and village cooperatives in terms of corporate income tax, value-added tax on agricultural products, and preferential tax policies for small and micro enterprises. Currently, the total output value of this industry in the county exceeds 860 million yuan, providing stable employment for 2219 individuals and indirectly creating jobs for more than 25,000 people. The county has been honored with titles such as “National Demonstration Base for Near-Wild Dendrobium officinale” and “National Non-timber Forest Products Industry County”.

3.1.2. Southern Case: Development of Non-Timber Forest Products Industry in Guangning County

Guangning County has a forest area of 202,000 hectares, with a forest coverage rate of 82.18%. With rich forest and bamboo resources, it is suitable for underforest planting and breeding. In recent years, Guangning County has attached great importance to the development of the non-timber forest products industry and implemented an innovation-driven development strategy. As a result, a new pattern of non-timber forest products industry development has been established, with cooperatives as the main body, market orientation, and the integration of industry, education, and research. Significant achievements have been made. The main practices include (Figure 5).
Emphasis on developing planning: The county government management places high importance on the development of the non-timber forest products industry. In accordance with the relevant documents issued by Guangdong Province for promoting this industry development, the county has formulated a series of documents including the “Guangning County Non-timber Forest Products Industry Development Plan (2021–2025)” and the “Guangning County Non-timber Forest Products Industry Demonstration Base Construction Operation Design”. The county actively explores various underforest composite management models, focusing on cultivating underforest planting of southern medicinal herbs, tea, bamboo fungus, and Ganoderma; processing industries for bamboo shoots and bamboo worms; and breeding industries for poultry, livestock, and bees. Additionally, it aims to develop forest-based health and wellness services, fostering comprehensive development of this industry.
Government support at the management level: A special leadership group led by the county magistrate has been established, and a joint meeting system has been set up with the county government’s supervising leader as the convener, and members including the departments of development and reform, finance, agriculture and rural affairs, forestry, and culture, tourism, and sports. The government has transformed its role from a “manager” to a “service provider”, shifting towards a market-oriented and enterprise-centric approach. It has strengthened its service awareness and implemented support policies related to finance, information, technology, and funding.
Implementation of key projects to drive development: The county has promoted the construction of a provincial-level non-timber forest products industry’s demonstration county with a total investment of 23.5 million yuan and a provincial-level modern agriculture industrial park for camellia oil with an investment of 150 million yuan. Currently, multiple projects, including sand ginger, simulated wild Ganoderma, bamboo fungus, Dendrobium, camellia tea, southern medicinal herbs from Qixing Mountain, bamboo shoots, as well as camellia oil planting, processing, and tourism, have been completed. Additionally, the county is advancing the construction of the Guangning County National Forest Wellness Base project with a total investment of 857 million yuan. This includes the completion of the Chikeng Green Beautiful Ancient Tree Village, the Honghua Camellia Theme Park, and 11 greening and beautification projects in provincially designated impoverished villages, contributing to the development of forest leisure tourism. The planning and implementation of an ecologically oriented development model has been supported by a RMB 3 billion credit line from the Guangdong branch of the Agricultural Development Bank of China.
Exploration of extensive benefit-linkage mechanisms: The county vigorously promotes the “leading enterprises + specialized cooperatives + bases + farmers” operational model. Some bases have innovated the “base + subcontracted farmer management” model, where companies and cooperatives provide seedlings, fertilizers, and technology, ensure minimum purchase prices, and offer free technical training, broadly encouraging farmers to engage in underforest planting and breeding industries. Experts from research institutes are brought in to provide training on sand ginger cultivation technology and to promote scientific planting methods to farmers. Currently, there are 172 enterprises involved in the underforest economy in the county, 428 specialized cooperatives, 2 provincial-level forestry leading enterprises, 2 provincial-level underforest economy demonstration bases, 1 municipal-level non-timber forest products industry demonstration base, 3 provincial-level forestry specialized cooperatives, and 2 provincial-level model family forestry farms.
Significant progress has been made in the development of non-timber forest products in Guangning County. Currently, this industry in Guangning County involves a forested area of 34,600 hectares. The number of individuals engaged in this industry has reached 82,851, with enterprises and cooperatives benefiting 16,500 farmers. The total output value of this industry has reached 1.312 billion yuan, comprising 155 million yuan from underforest planting, 116 million yuan from underforest breeding, 426 million yuan from collection and processing, and 615 million yuan from forest landscape utilization. Guangning County has been recognized as a “Demonstration County for the Non-timber Forest Products Industry in Guangdong Province”, a “Municipal-Level Non-timber Forest Products Industry Demonstration Base”, and a “National Forest Wellness Base”.

3.1.3. Eastern Case: Development of Non-Timber Forest Products Industry in Qingyuan County

Qingyuan County, located in the southwestern part of Zhejiang Province, boasts a high forest coverage rate of 86.12% and ranks among the top in the province for medicinal herb resources. In recent years, the county has significantly advanced the cultivation of underforest medicinal herbs, and it has now developed into a major base for the cultivation of Bletilla striata in Zhejiang Province. The primary approaches include (Figure 6):
Policy implementation to guide the development of forest-based medicinal herbs: Zhejiang Province has introduced the “14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Forest Understory Economy in Zhejiang Province” and other policies to support the non-timber forest product industry. Since 2019, Qingyuan County has continuously issued the “Qingyuan County Under-forest Medicinal Herb Industry Development Support Policy Five-Year Plan (2019–2023)” and the “Qingyuan County Medicinal Herb Industry Development Plan (2021–2025)” to promote the growth of underforest medicinal herbs. These policies provide subsidies of 29,985 yuan per hectare for the cultivation of medicinal herbs like Paris polyphylla, with new contiguous planting areas of over 0.33 hectares and a planting density exceeding 44,999 plants per hectare. For those included in the key support range, the subsidy is 38,999 yuan per hectare. Additionally, for the intercropping of Bletilla striata, Polygonatum, and Paris polyphylla under moso bamboo forests in contiguous areas exceeding 1.33 hectares, a subsidy of 8999 yuan per hectare is provided.
Leading enterprises have been engaged, and higher-level government funds have been utilized to support the development of the Chinese medicinal herbs industry. In 2018, the county government attracted Qian Ning Authentic Medicinal Materials Co., Ltd., Qingyuan County, Lishui City, Zhejing Province to build a Chinese herbal medicine planting base and wellness complex project. The company has leased nearly 40 hectares of mountainous land, planting 200 hectares of Bletilla striata and 13 hectares of Paris polyphylla. It has established wellness lodgings, a themed exhibition hall for medicinal herbs, and developed a series of Bletilla striata products, becoming one of the largest Bletilla striata cultivation bases in Zhejiang Province. A special financial allocation of RMB 10 million from Zhejiang Province has been used to promote the development of the “Wudabao–Xianliang–Zhangcun” forest-based Chinese medicinal herb industry belt in Qingyuan County.
Innovating benefit connection mechanisms: First, village–enterprise connections with guaranteed dividends whereby agreements have been signed with local villages for collective economic development projects, where the village collectives invest funds and leading enterprises handle operations, guaranteeing a minimum annual return of 10% to the village collectives. Second, cooperative–enterprise connections with spatial cooperation, where leading enterprises lease forest land to cooperatives (family farms) for secondary use, utilizing the underforest space in camellia and chestnut plantations to grow scarce medicinal herbs like Bletilla striata. The enterprises provide technical services such as fertilization and weeding, while the revenue from camellia and chestnut goes to the cooperatives (family farms), creating a win–win situation where farmers grow trees and enterprises grow herbs. Third, household-enterprise connections for increasing farmer income, where leading enterprises provide farmers with seedling resources, technical training, and on-site guidance, and buy Bletilla striata at market or guaranteed prices, addressing farmers’ concerns.
Standardizing cultivation and management models: In accordance with the standards for authentic medicinal material demonstration bases, the cultivation is promoted to be ecological, technologically standardized, and quality traceable. Standards are implemented from seedling cultivation and seedling emergence to planting norms, water and fertilizer use, harvesting time, and herb grading. Comparative experiments with organic silicon fertilizers, biological water and fertilizers, animal manure fertilizers, and wood chip fertilizers are conducted. Infrastructure construction such as video remote monitoring of seedling bases and planting bases and environmental meteorological monitoring is initiated to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicinal materials from the source.
Deepening the integration of agriculture, tourism, and wellness: Utilizing the local architectural style as the basic framework and preserving the rural rustic charm while incorporating medicinal herb elements, the first boutique homestay in Qingyuan County, combining leisure wellness and medicinal cuisine tasting, is being developed to provide tourists with a high-quality vacation environment. A thematic base and exhibition hall for medicinal herbs are also being constructed to promote wellness culture, showcase traditional Chinese medicine scientific achievements, and market the company’s authentic medicinal herb products.
The development of the non-timber forest product industry in Qingyuan County has achieved positive results. Currently, the county has established over 267 hectares of Bletilla striata cultivation bases, more than 1.33 hectares of Paris polyphylla cultivation areas, and a 3.33 hectares Bletilla striata seedling base. The annual seedling production capacity has reached over 15 million plants. Additionally, a themed exhibition hall and a wellness homestay dedicated to medicinal herbs have been built. Four Bletilla striata products have been developed, with one finished product already on the market. The enterprise has provided over 200 local employment opportunities and increased the annual income of 420 farming households by more than 27,000 yuan each. Moreover, over 60 local residents have achieved nearby employment. Qian Ning Authentic Medicinal Materials Co., Ltd., Qingyuan County, Lishui City, Zhejing Province, has been recognized by the National Forestry and Grassland Administration as a “National Non-timber Forest Products Industry Demonstration Base”.

3.1.4. Northern Case: Development of Non-Timber Forest Products Industry in Kalaqin Banner

The Kalaqin Banner is located in the southeastern part of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The total forest area in the banner is 176,134 hectares, with a timber stock volume of 7.13 million cubic meters and a forest coverage rate of 57.8%. The region boasts abundant forest resources, gentle terrain, ample precipitation, slightly acidic soil, and suitable stand density, creating favorable conditions for the development of the non-timber forest products industry. The banner focuses on expanding the forestry industry chain by developing underforest cultivation, underforest animal husbandry, fruit production, forest product processing, and forest-based wellness tourism. The main approaches include (Figure 7).
Implement the development mechanism for the non-timber forest products industry with the approach of “government promotion, departmental coordination, enterprise drive, base support, and forest farmer involvement”: The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region has issued the “Implementation Opinions on Accelerating the Development of Forest Understory Economy”, and the government of Kalaqin Banner has established specialized working groups for forestry economic development and a special investment promotion group for the forestry and grassland industry chain, with dedicated personnel focusing on advancing forestry economic growth. The local Forestry and Grassland Bureau has set up a Forestry Economic Development Center responsible for planning, managing, and coordinating forestry economic projects. The center is exploring a development model of “leading enterprises + bases + research institutes + cooperatives + farmers”, collaborating with institutions such as China Agricultural University, Qingdao Agricultural University, and Shandong Agricultural University for experimental promotion. It has also built a production and marketing connection platform between cooperatives, farmers, and technology enterprises like Shandong Budze and Hebei Zhuozhou Qiushi Agriculture, promoting regional development of the underforest economy through a point-to-area approach.
Increase financial support: The local government has issued the “Kalaqin Banner Support and Reward Measures for Consolidating and Expanding Poverty Alleviation Achievements and Effective Integration with Rural Revitalization”, providing preferential policies for the development of underforest industries such as forest fungi and medicinal herbs. For instance, there is a subsidy of 29,999 yuan per hectare for forest fungi and 2999 yuan per hectare for forest medicinal herbs, significantly boosting farmers’ enthusiasm for planting. To date, a total of 20 million yuan in forestry economic subsidies has been distributed, with an additional 32 million yuan in various upper-level funds secured. Seven related projects, including forest fungi cultivation, have been implemented.
Enhance technical training: Townships and forest farms have organized multiple sessions of theoretical and practical training for growers. Technical experts and key personnel have been hired to teach farmers planting techniques hands-on, offer tracking services, and resolve production issues in real time. Several grassroots forestry technicians and major underforest cultivators have been sent to Shaanxi and Gansu provinces for advanced experience study. Over 20 various technical training and on-site teaching activities have been organized, training more than 500 individuals and distributing over 2000 brochures.
Develop diversified models including underforest mushrooms, medicinal herbs, and livestock: The total area of forest fungi cultivation in the banner has reached 666.67 hectares. The cultivation of matsutake mushrooms has expanded to 233.45 hectares, with an output value of over 0.45 million per hectare, making it the second-largest matsutake cultivation base in China. Underforest medicinal herbs have been planted over 253.33 hectares, including valuable wild herbs such as Gastrodia elata, Hericium erinaceus, and Schisandra chinensis. Additionally, 30,000 poultry (including chickens and geese) and over 340 sika deer have been raised, along with more than 1200 Tibetan pigs.
The sustainable development of the forest understory economy in Kalaqin Banner has shown notable results. In 2023, the comprehensive output value of the forestry economy in the Kalaqin Banner reached 2 billion yuan, generating employment for over 10,000 people and increasing the annual income of each household by more than 30,000 yuan. The development model of this industry in Kalaqin Banner has become a typical example of forestry economic development in Inner Mongolia and has been awarded the title of “National Practice Innovation Base for Ecological Civilization: Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets” by the Chinese government.

3.2. Comparative Case Analysis

3.2.1. Commonality Analysis of Cases

Comparative analysis indicates that the sustainable development of the non-timber forest products industry typically faces certain obstacles. It requires the leading entities to strategically manage six key elements: policy, model, stakeholders, nature, funding, and technology. These elements exhibit distinct common characteristics (see Figure 8). Policy factors: in all four cases, county governments have provided policy guidance to promote the development of this industry, thereby energizing local economic growth. Model factors: each case utilizes the unique characteristics of local forest resources, focusing primarily on underforest cultivation while also incorporating diversified economic models such as underforest livestock farming and forest tourism. Stakeholder factors: all four cases have effectively mobilized a range of stakeholders, including farmers, cooperatives, enterprises, and forest farms, and have emphasized mechanisms to align the interests of these diverse participants. Natural factors: the sustainable development of this industry relies on abundant forestry resources, with a focus on developing underforest products while conserving these resources. Funding factors: each case has diversified its funding sources by leveraging various channels, including investment attraction funds, bank loans, tax incentives, and social capital. Technology factors: all four cases recognize the critical importance of technological advancements for the sustainable development of this industry. Governments or enterprises provide support to smallholder farmers in areas such as breeding and technical training, thus guiding the development of this industry.

3.2.2. Analysis of Case Differences

The four cases exhibit notable differences in location, natural endowments, and external institutional contexts, leading to varying models of non-timber forest products industry development. Disparities are observed across the six key elements: policy, model, stakeholders, nature, funding, and technology (see Table 2). (1) Policy factors: All four cases have implemented policies to promote the development of the underforest economy. In the southern and northern cases, specialized teams were established within the government to specifically support the industry activities. (2) Model factors: The western, southern, and northern cases feature highly integrated non-timber forest products industries, encompassing underforest cultivation, livestock farming, and tourism. In contrast, the eastern case primarily focuses on the medicinal herb industry chain. (3) Stakeholder factors: In the western and eastern cases, large external enterprises play a leading role, driving the involvement of cooperatives, farmers, and local businesses. Conversely, the southern and northern cases are primarily driven by local enterprises or large local operators. (4) Nature factors: The four cases differ in terms of forest tree species, geographical location, and climate, leading to significant variability in suitable non-timber forest products industries. This results in diverse industry models for cultivation and livestock farming. (5) Funding factors: The western and eastern cases primarily rely on external investment for funding, while the southern case raises funds based on key projects. Government subsidies for this industry’s development are provided in the western, eastern and northern cases. (6) Technology factors: The western, southern and northern cases involve the introduction of external research institutions or experts to provide technical training for underforest activities. The eastern case, however, relies on stringent planting standards established by leading enterprises in the medicinal herb sector.

3.3. Optimization of Sustainable Development Models for the Non-Timber Forest Products Industry

In summary, the sustainable development of the forest understory economy constitutes a complex system, as well as a multi-stakeholder involvement system, with the government guiding development and involving enterprises, cooperatives, and individual farmers. There is a need to achieve coordination among policies, stakeholders, and other aspects. Typically, there are certain obstacles to the sustainable development of the forest understory economy, which prevent the system from being self-adaptive and necessitate the managers to guide the rational allocation of elements. The main obstacles to the sustainable development of the forest understory economy include the following: First, forest understory development requires protecting forest resources as a prerequisite, requiring managers to provide oversight and regulation to enterprises, cooperatives, and farmers involved in forest understory activities. Second, products from the forest understory economy are often found in less-developed areas where the level of marketization is lower compared to urban areas. Third, in terms of market demand, enterprises or government managers need to lead or guide and connect with external market participants to ensure the profitability and sustainability of the forest understory economy. In light of the obstacles faced by the sustainable development of the forest understory economy, and through the analysis of case studies, the development of the forest understory economy is a system driven by multiple factors. By optimizing the six elements of policy, model, stakeholders, nature, funding, and technology, it can promote the optimization of sustainable development models for the forest understory economy (Figure 9).
Policy first: guiding the development of the non-timber forest products industry through top-level design. The development of the non-timber forest products industry faces certain obstacles. Local governments should introduce relevant policies to guide its development through policy and institutional design and formulate corresponding development plans. In spontaneous market conditions, there is a potential conflict between developing the non-timber forest products industry and protecting forest resources. The government needs to clarify the protection of forest resources while promoting the development of the industry. Additionally, as the primary participants in this industry are farmers who often face challenges such as funding shortages and lack of technical expertise, the government can support these participants through tax reductions and technical training. It can also attract large enterprises to support local farmers in terms of funding, technical training, and market access. To incentivize farmers to participate in forest resource protection and alleviate their financial pressure, the government can use forest management tasks to reduce rent when farmers lease the understory space of state-owned forests, creating a “management-increase income” win–win situation.
Selecting appropriate development models based on local natural endowments and socio-economic foundations. The choice of development models for the non-timber forest products industry should be based on local natural endowments and socio-economic conditions. It is advisable to select specialized understory cultivation, breeding, or tourism models that have development advantages and pilot different models to promote diversification and enrichment of this industry.
Mainly driven by large enterprises: establishing multi-stakeholder benefit-linked mechanisms. For large-scale development of the non-timber forest products industry, large enterprises should lead the development. Local leading enterprises, cooperatives, or large-scale operators can conduct pilot projects in cultivation, breeding, or tourism and promote these models based on successful pilots. Additionally, external investment can be attracted to either introduce or nurture local enterprises into leading roles to drive the development of the industry chain. For the non-timber forest products industry to achieve sustainable social development, broad farmer participation is essential. Different interest groups should establish benefit-linking mechanisms, such as the “Enterprise + Forest Farm + Cooperative + Farmer” model, to guide the collective participation of all stakeholders.
Focus on technology research and development for understory products: establish a technical training mechanism for the non-timber forest products industry. To achieve social and economic sustainability for forest understory products, advanced cultivation or breeding technologies are required. Managers should encourage universities, research institutions, or external enterprises to conduct technical trials or training locally, exploring suitable forest understory products for local cultivation or breeding. Furthermore, increase technical training for local agricultural cooperatives or farmers to ensure that small producers can produce high-quality forest understory products.
Primarily market-based funding: unblocking sales channels for non-timber forest products. The development of this industry requires substantial financial support. For economic and social sustainability, market-based funding should be the primary driver. Local areas can promote the development of this industry through investment attraction or by encouraging local enterprises to lead, using market-based funds. To scale up non-timber forest products, local governments can provide subsidies or tax reductions based on the benefits of these products. Additionally, to enhance the sustainability of this industry, their market competitiveness should be improved. Building strong brands for these products and ensuring smooth sales channels will generate significant profits and ensure the economic sustainability of this industry.

4. Discussion

The development of non-timber forest products industries may be hindered by obstacles such as destructive harvesting, low levels of marketization, and lack of policy support, which can impact the sustainability of the industry [13,14,15]. This study examined four case studies of this industry development in underdeveloped regions of China, demonstrating that effective allocation of six key elements—policy, model, actors, nature, funding, and technology—could lead to substantial sustainability in this industry.
Existing research has largely overlooked social factors in the sustainability of non-timber forest products industries, particularly the role of policy [19,20,21]. The selected cases in this study all benefitted from government policy support. At the national level in China, the development of the understory economy is guided by overarching policies. Additionally, the provinces of Guizhou, Guangdong, Zhejiang, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region have implemented provincial-level policies supporting the development of the non-timber forest products industry. At the county level, these policies are further enforced through specific planning and, in some cases, the establishment of specialized leadership groups to promote the implementation of these policies. This has significantly contributed to the ecological sustainability of these products (by mitigating potential destructive harvesting) and social sustainability (by alleviating poverty), consistent with the findings of Heinen and Shrestha-Acharya. [28].
While considerable research has discussed the factors influencing non-timber forest products industry development [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34], and Schunko et al. have proposed a model of factors affecting the commercial sustainability of the industry [33], there is a lack of conceptual models analyzing the industry from an “economic-social-ecological” sustainability perspective. This paper proposed a conceptual model for the “economic-social-natural” sustainability of non-timber forest products development. The model’s reliability was validated through the selected cases, and recommendations for optimizing future sustainability were provided. This has implications for the development of this industry in other underdeveloped regions globally.
However, this study has some limitations. First, the proposed conceptual model emphasizes the importance of policy guidance. In practice, the cost of implementing such policies can be high in some regions globally and may face promotion challenges. This may necessitate action from non-governmental organizations or industry bodies to ensure the protection of the ecological environment while developing non-timber forest products industries, addressing potential barriers to ecological sustainability. Second, while existing research has highlighted cultural sustainability [19], the products in the four selected cases are primarily artificially cultivated, with limited attention to the protection of traditional cultural elements. Therefore, the discussion on cultural sustainability is lacking. Additionally, the sustainability models for this industry are influenced by various factors, including natural endowments, social environment, policy environment, and economic development levels. Future research could analyze more cases, increase comparative studies among different cases, and develop sustainability models applicable to various regions.

5. Conclusions

From a systems theory perspective, this study proposed a “social-economic-natural” case analysis model for the sustainable development of the non-timber forest products industry. By conducting both single-case and multiple-case comparative studies on selected cases from Jinping County in Guizhou Province, Guangning County in Guangdong Province, Qingyuan County in Zhejiang Province, and Kalaqin Banner in Inner Mongolia, this research found the following: The sustainable development models of this industry are influenced by various factors, including different resource endowments and institutional environments, and can include both single and composite models. Developing the non-timber forest products industry in underdeveloped counties can achieve better sustainability. However, this requires a rational allocation of six key elements: policies, models, stakeholders, natural resources, funding, and technology, to stimulate the development dynamics of this industry.
To enhance the sustainability of the non-timber forest products industry, it is essential to optimize across these six elements from a “social-economic-natural” sustainability perspective. This includes “leading with policies and guiding the non-timber forest products industry development from a management level”, “choosing appropriate development models based on local natural endowments and socio-economic development foundations”, “fostering multi-stakeholder benefit linkage mechanisms primarily driven by large enterprises”, “focusing on the technological research and development of the non-timber forest products industry and establishing technical training mechanisms”, and “primarily utilizing market funds and improving the sales market for the non-timber forest products”.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Q.Q., S.L. and W.Z.; funding acquisition, Y.S. and Y.H.; investigation, S.L., W.Z. and G.S.; methodology, Q.Q.; project administration, Y.S. and Y.H.; resources, Y.H.; software, S.L. and G.S.; writing—original draft, S.L.; writing—review and editing, Q.Q., Y.S., Y.H. and W.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Young Scientists Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 42401360] and The Guangdong Provincial Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project [grant number GD23XGL067]. The APC received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

We ensure that the manuscript adheres to ethical standards and complies with the industry-recognized standards reflected in MDPI’s policies.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Different models for the development of the non-timber forest products industry: (a) understory cultivation (e.g., mushroom cultivation, cultivation of medicinal herbs); (b) understory farming (e.g., raising geese, sika deer); (c) forest ecotourism.
Figure 1. Different models for the development of the non-timber forest products industry: (a) understory cultivation (e.g., mushroom cultivation, cultivation of medicinal herbs); (b) understory farming (e.g., raising geese, sika deer); (c) forest ecotourism.
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Figure 2. Case analysis framework.
Figure 2. Case analysis framework.
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Figure 3. Location of the study counties on the map of China.
Figure 3. Location of the study counties on the map of China.
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Figure 4. Analysis of core elements in the western case.
Figure 4. Analysis of core elements in the western case.
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Figure 5. Analysis of core elements in the southern case.
Figure 5. Analysis of core elements in the southern case.
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Figure 6. Analysis of core elements in the eastern case.
Figure 6. Analysis of core elements in the eastern case.
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Figure 7. Analysis of core elements in Northern Case.
Figure 7. Analysis of core elements in Northern Case.
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Figure 8. Common factors among the four cases.
Figure 8. Common factors among the four cases.
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Figure 9. Framework for optimizing sustainable development models of the non-timber forest products industry.
Figure 9. Framework for optimizing sustainable development models of the non-timber forest products industry.
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Table 1. Locations and relevant honors of the four selected case-study areas for non-timber forest products in China.
Table 1. Locations and relevant honors of the four selected case-study areas for non-timber forest products in China.
Geographic Region in ChinaCase Study’s
County/Banner		Case Study’s
Province		Relevant Non-Timber Forest Product
Industry Honors in China
WesternJinpingGuizhouNational counties
SouthernGuangningGuangdongDemonstration county; city-level demo
EasternQingyuanZhejiangNational counties
NorthernKalaqin *Inner MongoliaPractice and innovation case
* In China, banners and counties are similar in administrative level; banners are unique to the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and reflect the cultural characteristics of specific ethnic groups.
Table 2. Attributes for the four case studies for non-timber forest products in China.
Table 2. Attributes for the four case studies for non-timber forest products in China.
AttributeAttribute QualifierWestern
Case Study		Southern
Case Study		Eastern
Case Study		Northern
Case Study
CountyNameJinpingGuangningQingyuanKalaqin
SupportHighDevelopment plansPlanned promotionWorking group/funding
ProvinceNameGuizhouGuangdongZhejiangInner Mongolia
SupportHighDevelopment plansForest understoryDevelopment plans
NaturalForest cover typeTreesBambooTrees/medicinal herbsTrees/steppe
ResourcesPercent forest cover72%82%86%58%
AbundanceHighHighHigh for herbsHigh
ActivitiesCultivationUnderstoryForest understoryMedicinal herbsForest fungi/medicine
LivestockYesYesNoNo
ProcessingYesYesYesNo
Tourism typeForestForestMedicinal herbNo
StakeholdersEnterprisesYesYesYesYes
State-owned co.YesYesNoNo
CooperativesYesYesYesYes
FarmersYesYesYesYes
HouseholdsYesNoNoNo
GovernmentYesYesYesYes
Research institutionsNoNoNoYes
TechnicalExpert collaborationUniversitiesExpertsDemonstrationsHigher education
SupportTarget farmersForestCultivatorsMedicinalFungi/medicinal
Training typeTechnicalTechnicalAuthentic materialsEnhanced materials
FundingTotal (billion RMB)7.63.170.190.17
State (billion RMB)0.430.010.05
Per Hectare (RMB)8999–88,199None8999–38,9992999–29,999
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MDPI and ACS Style

Qiao, Q.; Lei, S.; Zhang, W.; Shao, G.; Sun, Y.; Han, Y. Contrasting Non-Timber Forest Products’ Case Studies in Underdeveloped Areas in China. Forests 2024, 15, 1629. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091629

AMA Style

Qiao Q, Lei S, Zhang W, Shao G, Sun Y, Han Y. Contrasting Non-Timber Forest Products’ Case Studies in Underdeveloped Areas in China. Forests. 2024; 15(9):1629. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091629

Chicago/Turabian Style

Qiao, Qin, Shuo Lei, Wenting Zhang, Guomei Shao, Yong Sun, and Yongwei Han. 2024. "Contrasting Non-Timber Forest Products’ Case Studies in Underdeveloped Areas in China" Forests 15, no. 9: 1629. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091629

APA Style

Qiao, Q., Lei, S., Zhang, W., Shao, G., Sun, Y., & Han, Y. (2024). Contrasting Non-Timber Forest Products’ Case Studies in Underdeveloped Areas in China. Forests, 15(9), 1629. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091629

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