Next Article in Journal
Assessing Forest Resources with Terrestrial and Backpack LiDAR: A Case Study on Leaf-On and Leaf-Off Conditions in Gari Mountain, Hongcheon, Republic of Korea
Previous Article in Journal
Seedling Production in Eco-Friendly Tubes Manufactured with Beeswax and Cashew Nutshell
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Forests
Volume 15
Issue 12
10.3390/f15122229
forests-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Phytosociological and Abiotic Factors Influencing the Coverage and Morphological Traits of the Invasive Alien Potentilla indica (Rosaceae) in Riparian Forests and Other Urban Habitats: A Case Study from Kraków, Southern Poland

by
Artur Pliszko
1,*,
Tomasz Wójcik
2 and
Kinga Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt
3,*
1
Department of Taxonomy, Phytogeography and Palaeobotany, Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 3, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
2
Department of Nature Protection and Landscape Ecology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Environment Management and Protection, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
3
Department of Tourism Geography and Ecology, Institute of Tourism, Faculty of Tourism and Recreation, University of Physical Culture in Kraków, Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2229; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122229
Submission received: 4 October 2024 / Revised: 10 December 2024 / Accepted: 16 December 2024 / Published: 18 December 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Biological invasions are considered one of the most important threats to biodiversity worldwide, and their intensity increases with urbanization. Potentilla indica, a perennial stoloniferous plant of Asian origin, is a newly emerging invasive alien species in European cities and other areas. Due to its wide ecological range, it may threaten many native species, especially in urban riparian forests which are particularly susceptible to plant invasions. Although it shows high phenotypic plasticity, its coverage and morphological variability depending on the type of vegetation and abiotic factors in natural conditions have not been studied so far. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to explore this issue, using phytosociological relevés and measurements of selected environmental factors and morphological features of P. indica in Kraków, the second largest city in Poland, central Europe. We demonstrated that the coverage and morphological traits of P. indica can be significantly affected by the type of plant community, and the presence and abundance of the species in urban habitats are strongly related to soil moisture, electrical conductivity, and fertility. We also found that the coverage of P. indica is positively correlated with the Evenness index, height of herbaceous layer, soil electrical conductivity and moisture, and negatively with the number of species, soil compactness, and phosphorus content in the soil. We further revealed that the size of the leaves and the length of the pedicels and stolons in P. indica can be positively influenced by its coverage. To prevent the invasion of P. indica in riparian forests and other urban habitats, we suggest controlling its cultivation and disposal, removing new appearances, and maintaining high species diversity with a dominance of one or a few native species in plant communities.

1. Introduction

The invasion of alien plant species in cities is a global phenomenon which intensifies with urbanization [1,2,3]. Urban floras are usually rich in alien species due to the intentional introduction of non-native plants for horticulture as well as their unintentional introduction through transport [1,4,5,6]. However, the share of alien plant species in cities depends mainly on climatic and habitat conditions [1,4,7]. Above all, numerous environmental disturbances and strong propagule pressure observed in urban areas favor the naturalization and invasion of non-native plants [6]. Moreover, in expanding cities, the high shape complexity of highly disturbed habitats may increase the exchange surface that alien plants use to spread their propagules across the landscape mosaics, significantly contributing to their invasion [8].
The expansion of cities, on the one hand, entails the need to preserve the remnants of natural ecosystems and, on the other hand, requires the creation of new green areas that are crucial for maintaining wildlife [9] and ensuring the physical and mental health of city residents [10,11]. Along with ecological, economic, and social functions, alien plant species are commonly cultivated in urban green areas because of their resistance to drought, high temperatures, and air and soil pollution [2,12,13]. Generally, horticulture is considered the main source of naturalized plant species, and many exotic plants can easily escape from cultivation or enter natural habitats through illegal disposal of garden waste containing their propagules [12,14,15]. Therefore, special control is recommended when growing and disposing alien plant species, especially those already considered invasive or potentially invasive [16].
Potentilla indica (Andrews) Th. Wolf (in P.F.A.Ascherson and K.O.R.Graebner, Syn. Mitteleur. Fl. 6(1): 661 (1904)), a perennial plant of the family Rosaceae, is native to south and south-eastern Asia, although it has been introduced to almost all other continents except Antarctica [17,18,19,20]. As an ornamental and ground cover plant, it is particularly valued in urban gardening [21]. Unfortunately, it easily escapes from cultivation and naturalizes in semi-natural and anthropogenic habitats [18,22,23,24,25]. Moreover, it is considered invasive in some cities of Europe [26,27,28,29]. In its native range, P. indica occurs on mountain slopes (below 3100 m), meadows, riverbanks, and wet places, while in its secondary range, it is usually found in lowlands, in neglected gardens, parks, cemeteries, walls, lawns, roadsides, as well as in ruderal thickets and disturbed riparian forests [17,18,23,24,27].
The invasiveness of P. indica in urban areas is insufficiently recognized; however, its negative ecological impact consists mainly of rapid growth and dense patch formation that reduce the population size and species richness of native plants [27,28]. Moreover, some researchers suggest it is more competitive in moist and nitrogen-rich habitats [26,30]. Interestingly, the achenes of P. indica are often carried on shoes or dispersed by synanthropic birds from the thrush family, accelerating its spread in urban and suburban areas [24,25,27]. Furthermore, the proximity of cities and the presence of paths and roads were proven to favor the entry of P. indica into forests, particularly in warmer parts of forests, in north-eastern Slovenia [29]. Generally, the establishment of P. indica in central Europe is related to mean annual temperature and it occurs mainly in lowland regions with a mild climate [23].
Due to its wide ecological range, P. indica may threaten many native species, especially in urban riparian forests, which are particularly susceptible to plant invasions [31,32,33]. Nevertheless, it is not known how the coverage and morphological characteristics are shaped in P. indica depending on the plant community it colonizes, albeit the plant is considered to exhibit high phenotypic plasticity [34]. Moreover, there are no studies that would show the influence of abiotic factors on the coverage and morphological diversity of P. indica in the wild, apart from experimental studies. Therefore, in this study, we focused on the effect of phytosociological and abiotic factors on the coverage and morphological features of P. indica in urban forests and other habitats. Specifically, we asked:
(1)
How the type of vegetation, species diversity, and height of the herbaceous layer affect the coverage and morphological features of P. indica;
(2)
How the coverage and morphological characteristics of P. indica depend on light intensity and soil conditions (moisture, electrical conductivity, compactness, pH, and content of nutrients);
(3)
Whether the increasing cover of P. indica enhances its morphological features.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Species

Taxonomic treatment of P. indica followed Plants of the World Online [20]. Until recently, the plant was known as Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke; however, molecular phylogenetic studies have proven that Duchesnea Sm. is nested in the genus Potentilla L. [25]. P. indica is a clonal herb with short rhizome and long stolons (30–100 cm) that form plantlets at nodes. It is often confused with wild strawberries (Fragaria L. spp.) due to the similar aggregate fruit and 3-foliate leaves, although it produces solitary and yellow flowers [17], Figure 1A,B.

2.2. Study Area

The study was conducted in Kraków, the second largest city in Poland, central Europe, in 2022. It lies in a temperate climate zone and covers an area of 327 km2, with a population of 803.3 thousand [35]. From 1991 to 2020, the average annual air temperature and annual precipitation in Kraków were 8.9 °C and 673 mm, respectively [35].
In Poland, P. indica is considered a rare and locally established alien species [36,37]. The first spontaneous occurrence of P. indica in Kraków was recorded in the 1970s, in the Botanical Garden of the Jagiellonian University [38]. In the early 21st century, it was assessed as a plant that easily escapes from cultivation in the city [39], although, the exact time of its establishment remains unknown. Currently, it can be found in many places throughout the city, such as parks, lawns, roadsides, hedges, ruderal thickets, and forests, acting as an invasive species.
The study included 10 representative sites differing in vegetation and abundance of P. indica (Table S1, Figure 1C–L and Figure 2). At each site, a transect covering 10 square plots (5 m × 5 m) was established (Figure 2B). The GPS coordinates and altitude of study plots were recorded using a GARMIN GPSMAP 62st (Garmin (Europe) Ltd., Southampton, UK).

2.3. Phytosociological Analysis

In each study plot, a phytosociological relevé was made using the Braun-Blanquet method [40]. Within the plots, the cover-abundance of vascular plant species was visually estimated using a six-degree scale, and the percentage of total vegetation cover in tree, shrub, herb, and moss layers was visually estimated with an accuracy of 5%. Moreover, the height of the tallest plant in the herb layer (undergrowth) in each plot was measured using a folding ruler (StabilaMessgeräte Gustav Ullrich GmbH, Annweiler, Germany) with an accuracy of 0.1 cm.
100 phytosociological relevés were subjected to numerical-hierarchical classification based on species quantity. The similarity between the plots was calculated using the Ružička formula for quantitative data (a value of 0.5 was taken for +). The analysis was based on the weighted pair group method using arithmetic averages (WPGMA) [41]. The classification was performed using the SYN-TAX 2000 package [42]. Moreover, within the distinguished groups, phytosociological stability, and cover coefficient were calculated for each species. The coverage ratio was calculated by converting degrees of abundance into “average percent coverage” (r—0.1%, +—0.5%, 1—5%, 2—17.5%, 3—37.5%, 4—62.5%, and 5—87.5%) [43] and calculating the average value per syntaxon. The nomenclature of vascular plant species was adopted from Plants of the World Online [20]. The affiliation of species to syntaxonomic units followed Matuszkiewicz [44]. Diversity and quantitative relationships between species in the study sites were calculated based on the Shannon–Wiener diversity index [45], Evenness index [46], and Simpson index [47]. Furthermore, habitat conditions were characterized based on Ellenberg’s indicator values [48] using the JUICE program [49], and the average values of the following indicators were calculated for the distinguished plant communities: light (L), temperature (T), continentality (K), moisture (F), reaction (R), and nutrients (N).

2.4. Measurement of Abiotic Factors

In each study plot, the light intensity in the herb layer, soil moisture, soil electrical conductivity, and soil compactness were measured in five repetitions, at five sampling points (Figure 2C), using the LX-10 (Voltcraft, Conrad Electronic SE, Hirschau, Germany) digital light meter (0–199900 lx), Bioogród (Browin, Łódź, Poland) soil tester (0–3 dry soil, 4–7 moist soil, and 8–10 wet soil), HI98331 (Hanna Groline, Hanna Instruments, Olsztyn, Poland) direct soil electrical conductivity meter (0.00–4.00 mS/cm), and AGRETO soil compaction tester (AGRETO electronics GmbH, Raabs, Austria), respectively. The soil compactness was understood as the depth at which the compacted soil layer begins from the top of the soil (the deeper the penetrometer probe goes, the less compact the soil). Moreover, a soil sample was taken in every second plot of the transect at each study site. The soil sample (about 500 g) was made by mixing five small soil samples (about 100 g) taken from five sampling points within the plot (Figure 2C). A total of 50 soil samples (five per study site) were taken from the top layer of the soil (a depth of up to 10 cm) using a stainless-steel soil spatula and placed in plastic bags. In the laboratory, the soil samples were dried at room temperature, sieved (using a 2 mm sieve), and subjected to chemical analysis. The soil pH and the content of phosphorus, potassium, nitrate, and ammonium nitrogen were determined using a VISOCOLOR® kit (Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany).

2.5. Morphometric Analysis

The morphometric analysis of P. indica was based on fresh plant materials, including 10 or fewer mature individuals (maternal ramets) with developed flowers or fruits per plot. The following morphological features of maternal ramets were included in the measurements: length of the longest petiole (PTL), length (LL) and width (LW) of the leaf blade (leaf with the longest petiole), number of stolons (SN), length of the longest stolon (LSL), number of daughter ramets on the longest stolon (DRN), length of the longest pedicel (PDL), and length (FL) and width (FW) of fruit. In some cases, daughter ramets produced their stolons, but these stolons were not included in the number of stolons of the maternal ramet. The morphological features were measured using a self-retracting tape (Dedra M582, Pruszków, Poland) with an accuracy of 0.1 cm.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

The normal distribution of the untransformed data was tested using the Kołmogorov–Smirnov test, and the homogeneity of variance was verified using the Levene test at the significance level of p < 0.05. The Kruskal–Wallis H test with the Bonferroni correction to adjust probability p < 0.0017 was applied to check the statistical significance of differences in Ellenberg’s indicator values, Shannon-Wiener, Evenness, and Simpson indices, light intensity, the height of the herbaceous layer, soil moisture, soil electrical conductivity and the depth of the compact soil layer, soil pH, the content of phosphorus, potassium, nitrate, and ammonium nitrogen, the coverage and morphological features of P. indica between the groups of plant communities. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to check the statistical significance of differences in the light intensity, soil electrical conductivity, soil pH, and the content of phosphorus, potassium, nitrate, and ammonium nitrogen in the soil between the plots with and without P. indica. Also, the t-Student test was applied to check the statistical significance of differences in the height of the herbaceous layer, the soil moisture, and the depth of the compact soil layer between the plots with and without P. indica.
The Pearson coefficient was used to test the correlations between the coverage and morphological features of P. indica and the Shannon-Wiener, Evenness and Simpson indices, light intensity, height of the herbaceous layer, soil moisture, soil electrical conductivity, and the depth of the compact soil layer. The Spearman coefficient was applied to check the correlations between the coverage and morphological features of P. indica and soil pH and the content of phosphorus, potassium, nitrate, and ammonium nitrogen. Moreover, the Pearson coefficient was used to test the correlations between the coverage and the morphological features of P. indica. The mean values of environmental parameters and morphological traits were included in correlation tests. Statistical analysis was performed using a Statistica package (version 13.3).

3. Results

3.1. Characteristics of Plant Communities

Based on the numerical classification of phytosociological relevés, eight groups of plant communities were distinguished (Figure S1). Interestingly, each group corresponds to one or two study, sites and the plots in which P. indica was absent (N = 35) do not form one separate group. Although the species composition of plant communities varied at the study sites, ruderal species from the Artemisietea vulgaris class dominated in groups 1 and 2, forest species from the Querco-Fagetea class prevailed in groups 3, 4 and 5, and meadow species from the Molinio-Arrhenatheretea class had the largest share in the remaining groups (Table S2).
In group 1, with the community Potentilla indica-Geum urbanum, P. indica achieved the highest degree of stability and the greatest coverage, while in group 2, with the community Urtica dioica-Rubus caesius, it occurred sporadically. In group 3, with the community Galeobdolon luteum-Elymus caninus, P. indica achieved degree IV of stability and significant coverage. In group 4, with the community Festuca gigantea-Galeobdolon luteum, P. indica occurred sporadically. In group 5, with the community Fraxinus excelsior-Aegopodium podagraria, P. indica showed the highest degree of stability but had low coverage. In group 6, with the community Agrostis capillaris-Poa trivialis, P. indica achieved degree IV of stability and significant coverage. In group 7, with the association, Lolio-Polygonetumarenastri, P. indica showed degree III of constancy and the lowest cover coefficient. It was dominated by meadow species adapted to trampled places. In group 8, with the community Agrostis capillaris-Viola odorata, P. indica achieved degree IV of stability and significant coverage (Table S2).
The groups differed significantly in the number of species, the Shannon-Wiener index, the height of the herbaceous layer, and the coverage of P. indica (Table 1 and Table 2, Table S3). On the other hand, there was no significant difference in the Evenness and Simpson indices between the groups (Table 1, Table S3).

3.2. Characteristics of Abiotic Conditions

The groups differed significantly in Ellenberg’s indicator values, except temperature (Table 1, Table S4) as well as in the depth of the compacted soil layer, soil electrical conductivity, soil moisture, and potassium content (Table 2, Table S5). On the other hand, there were no significant differences in the light intensity, soil pH and the content of nitrate, ammonium nitrogen, and phosphorus between the groups (Table 2, Table S5). Moreover, the plots with P. indica were characterized by significantly higher soil electrical conductivity, soil moisture, and content of nitrate, as well as by significantly lower content of ammonium nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus (Figure 3).

3.3. Morphological Variability of P. indica in Various Plant Communities

The morphological traits of P. indica differed significantly between the groups of plant communities. In most cases, the highest values of morphological features were recorded in groups 1 and 2, and the lowest in group 7 (Table 3, Table S6).

3.4. The Effect of Environmental Factors on Coverage and Morphological Features of P. indica

The coverage of P. indica was significantly positively correlated with the Evenness index, the depth of the compacted soil layer, soil electrical conductivity, soil moisture, and the height of the herbaceous layer, while the number of species and the content of phosphorus in the soil showed an opposite effect (Table S7).
The Shannon-Wiener, Evenness, and Simpson indices had a significantly negative effect on some morphological traits, such as the number of stolons and the width of the fruit (Table S7). The number of species had a significantly negative influence on all morphological traits, except the number of daughter ramets. The light intensity also had a significantly negative effect on all morphological traits, except the number of stolons and size of the fruit. In contrast, the depth at which the compacted soil layer begins had a significantly positive effect on all morphological traits, except the size of the fruit. The soil electrical conductivity and moisture had a significantly positive effect on all morphological traits, except the number of stolons and the number of daughter ramets. The height of the herbaceous layer had a significantly positive effect on all morphological features, except the number of daughter ramets. There was no significant correlation between the soil pH, the content of nitrate, ammonium nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus and the morphological traits of P. indica (Table S7). Moreover, the length of the pedicel and petiole, the length and width of the leaf blade, and the length of stolon were significantly positively affected by the coverage of P. indica (Table S7).

4. Discussion

P. indica shows a wide phytosociological spectrum, thriving in various plant communities, both in its native and secondary range. For instance, in Iran, in the westernmost part of its native range, it occurs in the deciduous forest communities Parrotia persica-Carpinus betulus and Acer velutinum-Alnus subcordata-Carpinus betulus [50], while in northern China, on the Guandi Mountain, it is a part of the secondary Picea forest [51]. Moreover, in Pakistan, in the Kashmir Himalayas, it is found as a dominant species of the community Cynodon-Duchesnea-Zanthoxylum, being common both in disturbed (eroded) and undisturbed (non-eroded) sites along roads [52]. In Europe, P. indica is usually treated as a species typical of nutrient-rich, mesic, and wet meadows and grasslands of the class Molinio-Arrhenatheretea [28,53]. However, nitrogen-rich and shady ruderal plant communities with a high share of P. indica, such as Duchesneetum indicae and Oxalido-Duchesneetum indicae,were also described from Europe [22,28]. Similarly, in this study, we evidenced a great phytocoenotic tolerance of P. indica, with the highest coverage in the ruderal community Potentilla indica-Geum urbanum, under semi-shade, moderate temperature, relatively low continentality, average moisture, slightly acidic, and nutrient-rich soil conditions. We assume that P. indica achieves different coverage in different plant communities not only due to environmental conditions but also depending on interspecific competition. In some study plots, P. indica suppressed Agrostis capillaris, Geum urbanum, Poa trivialis, and Viola odorata, while in others, it was dominated or outcompeted by expansive species such as Aegopodium podagraria, Galeobdolon luteum, Lolium perenne, Rubus caesius, and Urtica dioica. Some authors [54] have proven that dense patches of P. indica can reduce the number of species and above-ground biomass of indigenous weeds commonly growing in the surroundings of crop fields in Japan, which may suggest a negative toxic effect of this species through allelopathy. Contrastingly, another study [55] showed a positive allelopathic effect of P. indica on the growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) seedlings. Nevertheless, competitive and allelopathic properties of P. indica in its secondary range require detailed studies.
Our results suggest that the presence and abundance of P. indica in urban habitats are strongly related to soil moisture, soil electrical conductivity, and soil fertility. In general, soil moisture and soil electrical conductivity are correlated with each other and the wetter the soil, the higher the soil electrical conductivity [56]. Nevertheless, soil moisture depends not only on the soil texture and porosity but also on many environmental factors such as climate, topography, and geology, as well as anthropogenic factors such as artificial irrigation and shading, which can be very diverse in urban areas [57,58]. In addition, urban soils can be highly heterogeneous in fertility and contamination [59]. According to Xuegang and Ming [30], the optimal habitat in which P. indica forms dense and extensive clusters has 80% of the maximum moisture content of the soil. Moreover, the clonal type of growth with physiological integration between maternal and daughter ramets allows P. indica to inhabit places with various degrees of salinity, including over-salinized ones with high soil electrical conductivity [21]. Given this, we confirmed that the coverage of P. indica increases with the soil moisture and soil electrical conductivity. In addition, the plots with P. indica were characterized by a higher content of nitrate and a lower content of ammonium nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. Also, the coverage of P. indica was negatively affected by the content of phosphorus. These results are consistent with the findings of Gray and Call [60], who proved that over-fertilization limits the occurrence of P. indica in tall fescue lawns. On the other hand, in nitrogen-rich environments, P. indica can be highly competitive due to the preferred investment in shoot biomass [26].
Although P. indica often occurs in trampled areas and its seeds can be spread by shoes along paths [28,29], we observed a low cover of this plant in sites exposed to human trampling (with compact soil and low herbaceous layer). This is not surprising since many authors have proven the negative impact of trampling on the plant cover [61]. Nevertheless, the low coverage of P. indica in some parks and roadsides in Kraków may result not only from human trampling but also from mowing, as pointed out by Gray and Call [60]. Interestingly, we revealed that the coverage of P. indica can be negatively affected by the number of species and positively by the Evenness index. This suggests that plant communities with higher species richness but dominated by one or a few native species are more resistant to P. indica invasion. The invasion-suppressing effect of native species diversity has been proven in other studies [62].
We documented significant differences in the quantitative morphological characteristics of P. indica between the groups of plant communities. Generally, P. indica is characterized by high phenotypic plasticity, which may give it an advantage in overcoming environmental stresses and may allow it to quickly adapt to local conditions [34]. Moreover, clonal integration possessed by P. indica is considered adaptive to various stressful factors such as high altitude [63], Pb contamination [64], and salinity [21]. According to Wang et al. [34], the plasticity of petiole length and old leaf chlorophyll content in response to light variation, as well as the plasticity of old and adult leaf chlorophyll content in response to nutrient variation, are of adaptive importance. Our results showing the negative effect of light intensity on petiole length and leaf blade size are consistent with the findings of Wang et al. [34]. Contrastingly, we did not find a positive correlation between light intensity and the number of ramets nor a significant effect of nutrient content on petiole length and leaf blade size, which may result from methodological differences. Notably, the length of the pedicels and stolons and the size of the leaves in P. indica increase with its coverage. Similar self-grown-reinforcing feedback was observed in Solidago canadensis, an invasive clonal plant with underground rhizomes [65]. Perhaps in larger and denser clones, the integration of ramets allows for the better use of environmental resources, or there is stronger support from the symbiotic microorganisms since the roots of P. indica are readily inhabited by various rhizosphere fungi [66]. Nevertheless, the biomass, number of ramets, and length of stolons in P. indica can be negatively affected by intraspecific competition, especially under low light intensity [67].
We further revealed that the species richness of the plant community reduces the values of morphological traits of P. indica (with no influence on the number of daughter ramets), while the height of the herbaceous layer has the opposite effect. This can be explained by interspecific competition for light, which is particularly strong in plant communities with high levels of nutrient availability [68]. In addition, morphologically, P. indica performs better on less compact soils, which confirms the known pattern of reducing the size of plants in places with high soil compaction [61]. Also, the positive effect of soil moisture and soil electrical conductivity on the morphological traits of P. indica is not surprising, as these two factors enhance its growth [21,30].

5. Conclusions

High spatial heterogeneity in plant cover, light intensity, and soil quality, usually occurring in urban areas may result in differences in the distribution, abundance, and morphological traits of P. indica. Nevertheless, the most important factors that may favor the spread of P. indica include high levels of soil moisture, soil electrical conductivity, and nitrate content, but high phosphorus content may inhibit the coverage of this species. As a clonal plant, in dense and extensive patches, P. indica increases the size of its leaves and flower stalks and the length of its stolons, which may allow it to effectively occupy space and compete with other species for light, especially in nitrogen-rich habitats such as riparian forests. To prevent the invasion of P. indica in riparian forests and other urban habitats, we recommend controlling its cultivation and disposal, removing new stands, and maintaining high species diversity with a dominance of one or a few native species in plant communities. When growing P. indica in botanical gardens, private gardens, or public urban greenery, it is important to prevent it from escaping into the wild. Excessively expanding plants should be removed together with stolons and daughter ramets. In addition, flowers and young fruits should be removed to prevent the dispersal of seeds by animals feeding on their fruits. We also recommend following the principles outlined in the European codes of conduct for invasive alien species in horticulture [69,70].

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f15122229/s1, Figure S1. Phytosociological relevé grouping by WPGMA method; Table S1. Characteristics of study sites; Table S2. Constancy degree and cover coefficient values of species in eight groups of phytosociological relevés with Potentilla indica. Acronyms of study sites are explained in Table S1; Table S3. Results of multiple comparisons between groups of phytosociological plots including number of species and Shannon-Wiener [H’] and Evenness [J’] indices. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant; Table S4. Results of multiple comparisons between groups of phytosociological plots including Ellenberg’s indicator values. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant; Table S5. Results of multiple comparisons between groups of phytosociological plots including biotic and abiotic parameters. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant; Table S6. Results of multiple comparisons between groups of phytosociological plots including morphological traits of Potentilla indica. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant; Table S7. Correlation between coverage and morphological features of Potentilla indica and environmental factors. The statistically significant values are bolded (* Pearson coefficient, ** Spearman coefficient).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: A.P. and K.K.-G.; methodology: A.P., T.W., and K.K.-G.; formal analysis and investigation: A.P., T.W., and K.K.-G.; writing—original draft preparation: A.P., T.W., and K.K.-G.; writing—review and editing: A.P., T.W., and K.K.-G.; supervision: A.P. and K.K.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article and Supplementary Materials, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

AP received financial support from the Institute of Botany of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków (N18/DBS/000002). The authors thank Zbigniew Gierałt, Eng. for his assistance in conducting the field studies and soil analyses.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Aronson, M.F.J.; LaSorte, F.A.; Nilon, C.H.; Katti, M.; Goddard, M.A.; Lepczyk, C.A.; Warren, P.S.; Williams, N.S.G.; Cilliers, S.; Clarkson, B.; et al. A global analysis of the impacts of urbanization on bird and plant diversity reveals key anthropogenic drivers. Proc. R. Soc. B 2014, 281, 20133330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Potgieter, L.J.; Cadotte, M.W. The application of selected invasion frameworks to urban ecosystems. NeoBiota 2020, 62, 365–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ruas, R.B.; Costa, L.M.S.; Bered, F. Urbanization driving changes in plant species and communities—A global view. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2022, 38, e02243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Pyšek, P. Alien and native species Central European urban floras: A quantitative comparison. J. Biogeogr. 1998, 25, 155–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Von der Lippe, M.; Säumel, I.; Kowarik, I. Cities a sdrivers for biological invasions—The role of urban climate and traffic. Die Erde 2005, 136, 123–143. [Google Scholar]
  6. Gaertner, M.; Larson, B.M.H.; Irlich, U.M.; Holmes, P.M.; Stafford, L.; van Wilgen, B.W.; Richardson, D.M. Managing invasive species in cities: A framework from Cape Town, South Africa. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2016, 151, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Lososová, Z.; Chytrý, M.; Tichýl, L.; Danihelka, J.; Fajmon, K.; Hájek, O.; Kintrová, K.; Kühn, I.; Láníková, D.; Otýpková, Z.; et al. Native and alien floras in urban habitats: A comparison across 32 cities of central Europe. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2012, 21, 545–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Boscutti, F.; Lami, F.; Pellegrini, E.; Buccheri, M.; Busato, F.; Martini, F.; Sibella, R.; Sigura, M.; Marini, L. Urban sprawl facilitates invasions of exotic plants a cross multiple spatial scales. Biol. Invasions 2022, 24, 1497–1510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Aronson, M.F.J.; Lepczyk, C.A.; Evans, K.L.; Goddard, M.A.; Lerman, S.B.; MacIvor, J.S.; Nilon, C.H.; Vargo, T. Biodiversity in the city: Key challenges for urban green space management. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2017, 15, 189–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Bertram, C.; Rehdanz, K. The role of urban green space for human well-being. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 120, 139–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Jabbar, M.; Yusoff, M.M.; Shafie, A. Assessing the role of urban green spaces for human well-being: A systematic review. GeoJournal 2022, 87, 4405–4423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Van Kleunen, M.; Essl, F.; Pergl, J.; Brundu, G.; Carboni, M.; Dullinger, S.; Early, R.; González-Moreno, P.; Groom, Q.J.; Hulme, P.E.; et al. The changing role of ornamental horticulture in alien plant invasions. Biol. Rev. 2018, 93, 1421–1437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Šipek, M.; Šajna, N. Public opinions and perceptions of peri-urban plant invasion: The role of garden waste disposal in forest fragments. Manag. Biol. Invasions 2020, 11, 733–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Rusterholz, H.-P.; Wirz, D.; Baur, B. Garden waste deposits as a source for non-native plants in mixed deciduous forests. Appl. Veg. Sci. 2012, 15, 329–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Vaverková, M.D.; Maxianová, A.; Winkler, J.; Adamcová, D.; Podlasek, A. Environmental consequences and the role of illegal waste dump sand their impact on land degradation. Land Use Policy 2019, 89, 104234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Strgulc Krajšek, S.; Bahčič, E.; Čoko, U.; Dolenc Koce, J. Disposal methods for selected invasive plant species used as ornamental garden plants. Manag. Biol. Invasions 2020, 11, 293–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Flor aof China Volume 9. Available online: http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=111019 (accessed on 3 October 2024).
  18. Ertter, B.; Reveal, J.L. Duchesnea. In Flora of North America; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, Ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA; Oxford, UK, 2014; Volume 9, pp. 272–273. [Google Scholar]
  19. Randall, R.P. A Global Compendium of Weeds, 3rd ed.; RPRandall: Perth, WA, Australia, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  20. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available online: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org (accessed on 4 July 2024).
  21. Qian, Y.; Lu Chen, D.; Li, D. Physiological integration improves mock strawberry [Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke] uniformity under heterogeneous saline conditions. Sci. Hortic. 2022, 291, 110579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Jackowiak, B. On the distribution of Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae) in Vienna. Fragm. Florist. Geobot. 1992, 37, 547–593. [Google Scholar]
  23. Liefländer, A.; Lauerer, M. Spontan vorkommen von Duchesnea indica: Ein Neophyt breitetsichinden letzten Jahrenverstärktaus. Berichte Bayer. Bot. Ges. 2007, 77, 187–200. [Google Scholar]
  24. Panek, M.; Piwowarczyk, R. Spontaniczne rozprzestrzenianie się Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae) na terenie Sandomierza. Fragm. Florist. Geobot. Polon. 2017, 24, 167–173. [Google Scholar]
  25. Mink, J.N.; Singhurst, J.R.; Holmes, W.C. Potentilla indica (Rosaceae) new to Utah, with discussion of dispersal by the American Robin. Phytoneuron 2019, 5, 1–4. [Google Scholar]
  26. Littschwager, J.; Lauerer, M.; Blagodatskaya, E.; Kuzyakov, Y. Nitrogen uptake and utilisation as a competition factor between invasive Duchesnea indica and native Fragaria vesca. Plant Soil 2010, 331, 105–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Invasive Species in Belgium. Duchesnea Indica. Available online: https://ias.biodiversity.be/species/show/107 (accessed on 3 October 2024).
  28. Eliášst, P. Spoločenstvo s Duchesnea indica v hlavnom meste SR Bratislave. Bull. Slov. Bot. Spoločn. 2020, 42, 187–204. [Google Scholar]
  29. Šipek, M.; Šajna, N.; Horvat, E. Factors driving invasion of alien Prunus serotina Her., Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Th. Wolfand Impatiens parviflora DC. In Tolow Land Forest Fragments in NE Slovenia, Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Biological Invasions: The Human Role in Biological Invasions—A Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde? NEOBIOTA202015–18 September 2020, Vodice, Croatia, Book of Abstracts; Jelaska, S.D., Ed.; Croatian Ecological Society: Zagreb, Croatia, 2020; p. 103. [Google Scholar]
  30. Luo, X.; Dong, M. Architectural plasticity in response to soil moisture in the stoloniferous herb, Duchesnea indica. ActaBot. Sin. 2002, 44, 97–100. [Google Scholar]
  31. Castro-Díez, P.; Alonso, Á. Effects of non-native riparian plants in riparian and fluvial ecosystems: A review for the Iberian Peninsula. Limnetica 2017, 36, 525–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Chundi, C.; Shengjun, W.; Douglas, M.C.; Maohua, M.; Juanjuan, Z.; Mingquan, L.; Xiaoxiao, T. Effects of local and landscape factors on exotic vegetation in the riparian zone of a regulated river: Implications for reservoir conservation. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 157, 45–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Czortek, P.; Dyderski, M.K.; Jagodziński, A.M. River regulation drives shifts in urban riparian vegetation over three decades. Urban For. Urban Green. 2020, 47, 126524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Wang, M.-Z.; Li, H.-L.; Liu, C.-X.; Dong, B.-C.; Yu, F.-H. Adaptive plasticity in response to light and nutrient availability in the clonal plant Duchesnea indica. J. Plant Ecol. 2022, 15, 795–807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Statistics Poland. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Poland 2023; Statistics Poland: Warsaw, Poland, 2024.
  36. Tokarska-Guzik, B.; Dajdok, Z.; Zając, M.; Zając, A.; Urbisz, A.; Danielewicz, W.; Hołdyński, C. Rośliny Obcego Pochodzenia w Polsce ze Szczególnym Uwzględnieniem Gatunków Inwazyjnych; Generalna Dyrekcja Ochrony Środowiska: Warszawa, Poland, 2012.
  37. Zając, A.; Zając, M. (Eds.) Distribution atlas of Vascular Plants in Poland: Appendix; Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University: Kraków, Poland, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  38. Trzcińska-Tacik, H. Flora Synantropijna Krakowa; Rozprawy Habilitacyjne; Uniwersytet Jagielloński: Kraków, Poland, 1979; Volume 32, pp. 1–278. [Google Scholar]
  39. Guzik, J. Flora roślin naczyniowych Krakowa, jej stan współczesny, zróżnicowanie i walory. Cz.2. Flora synantropijna. Wszechświat 2006, 107, 90–96. [Google Scholar]
  40. Braun-Blanquet, J. Pflanzensoziologie; Springer: Wien, Austria, 1964. [Google Scholar]
  41. Dzwonko, Z. Przewodnik do Badań Fitosocjologicznych; Sorus: Poznań-Kraków, Poland, 2007. [Google Scholar]
  42. Podani, J. SYN-TAX 2000. Computer Programs for Data Analysis in Ecology and Systematics; Scientia Publishing: Budapest, Hungary, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  43. Vander Maarel, E. Transformation of cover-abundance values in phytosociology and its effect on community similarity. Vegetatio 1979, 39, 97–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Matuszkiewicz, W. Przewodnik do Oznaczania Zbiorowisk Roślinnych Polski; Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN: Warszawa, Poland, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  45. Pielou, E.C. Population and Community Ecology: Principles and Methods; CRC Press: NewYork, NY, USA, 1974. [Google Scholar]
  46. Pielou, E.C. Ecological Diversity; John Wiley and Sons: NewYork, NY, USA, 1975. [Google Scholar]
  47. Simpson, E.H. Measurement of diversity. Nature 1949, 163, 688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Ellenberg, H.; Leuschner, C. Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen: In Ökologischer, Dynamischer und Historischer Sicht; Eugen Ulmer UTB: Stuttgart, Germany, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  49. Tichý, L. JUICE, software for vegetation classification. J. Veg. Sci. 2002, 13, 451–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Zare, H.; Ramezani Kakroudi, E.; Amini, T. A record of Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae) in Iran, its western most distributional limit in Asia. Iran. J. Bot. 2007, 13, 93–94. [Google Scholar]
  51. Zhang, M.; Liu, Z.; Yang, Z.; Shen, H.; Wang, J.; Wu, X. Altitudinal variation in species diversity, distribution, and regeneration status of a secondary Picea forest in Guandi Mountain, Northern China. Forests 2024, 15, 771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Dar, M.E.U.I.; Gillani, N.; Shaheen, H.; Firdous, S.S.; Ahmad, S.; Khan, M.Q.; Hussain, M.A.; Habib, T.; Malik, N.Z.; Ullah, T.S.; et al. Comparative analysis of vegetation from eroded and non-eroded areas, a case study from Kashmir Himalayas, Pakistan. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res. 2018, 16, 1725–1737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Mucina, L. Conspectus of classes of European vegetation. Folia Geobot. 1997, 32, 117–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Nemoto, M.; Ohtsuka, T. Effect of short-growing indigenous plants growing in surroundings of crop fields on the suppression of weed colonization. J. WeedSci. Technol. 1998, 43, 26–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Ali, K.W.; Shinwari, M.I.; Khan, A.S. Screening of 196 medicinal plant species leaf litter for allelopathic potential. Pak. J. Bot. 2019, 51, 2169–2177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Corwin, D.L.; Lesch, S.M. Apparent soil electrical conductivity measurements in agriculture. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2005, 46, 11–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Volo, T.J.; Vivoni, E.R.; Martin, C.A.; Earl, S.; Ruddell, B.L. Modelling soil moisture, water partitioning, and plant water stress under irrigated conditions in desert urban areas. Ecohydrology 2014, 7, 1297–1313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Jiang, Y.; Weng, Q. Estimation of hourly and daily evapotranspiration and soil moisture using downscaled LST over various urban surfaces. GISci. Remote Sens. 2017, 54, 95–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Joimel, S.; Cortet, J.; Jolivet, C.C.; Saby, N.P.A.; Chenot, E.-D.; Branchu, P.; Consalès, J.-N.; Lefort, C.; Morel, J.-L.; Schwartz, C. Physico-chemical characteristics of topsoil for contrasted forest, agricultural, urban and industrial land uses in France. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 545–546, 40–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  60. Gray, E.; Call, N.M. Fertilization and mowing on persistence of Indian mock strawberry (Duchesnea indica) and Common blue violet (Viola papilionacea) in a tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) lawn. Weed Sci. 1993, 41, 548–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Pescott, O.L.; Stewart, G.B. Assessing the impact of human trampling on vegetation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental evidence. PeerJ 2014, 2, e360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Hector, A.; Dobson, K.; Minns, A.; Bazeley-White, E.; Lawton, J.H. Community diversity and invasion resistance: An experimental test in a grassland ecosystem and a review of comparable studies. Ecol. Res. 2001, 16, 819–831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Chen, J.S.; Lei, N.F.; Yu, D.; Dong, M. Differential effects of clonal integration on performance in the stoloniferous herb Duchesnea indica, as growing at two sites with different altitude. Plant Ecol. 2006, 183, 147–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Quan, J.; Zhang, X.; Song, S.; Dang, H.; Chai, Y.; Yue, M.; Liu, X. Clonal plant Duchesnea indica Focke forms an effective survival strategy in different degrees of Pb-contaminated environments. Plant Ecol. 2018, 219, 1315–1327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Baranová, B.; Troščáková-Kerpčárová, E.; Grul’ová, D. Survey of the Solidago canadensis L. morphological traits and essential oil production: Aboveground biomass growth and abundance of the invasive goldenrod appears to be reciprocally enhanced within the invaded stands. Plants 2022, 11, 535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Jamil, A.; Yang, J.-Y.; Su, D.-F.; Tong, J.-Y.; Chen, S.-Y.; Luo, Z.-W.; Shen, X.-M.; Wei, S.-J.; Cui, X.-L. Rhizospheric soil fungal communitypatterns of Duchesnea indica in response to altitude gradient in Yunnan, southwest China. Can. J. Microbiol. 2020, 66, 359–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Wang, P.; Lei, J.-P.; Li, M.-H.; Yu, F.-H. Spatial heterogeneity in light supply affects intraspecific competition of a stoloniferous clonal plant. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e39105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Aerts, R. Interspecific competition in natural plant communities: Mechanisms, trade-offs and plant-soil feedbacks. J. Exp. Bot. 1999, 50, 29–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Heywood, V.H.; Brunel, S. Code of Conducton Horticulture and Invasive AlienPlants; Council of Europe Publishing: Strasbourg, France, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  70. Heywood, V.H.; Sharrock, S. European Code of Conduct for Botanic Gardens on Invasive Alien Species; Council of Europe: Strasbourg, France; Botanic Gardens Conservation International: Richmond, VA, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
Forests 15 02229 g001
Figure 1. Morphological details of Potentilla indica and vegetation of study sites in Kraków, southern Poland: (A)—flowering shoot, (B)—fruiting shoots, (C)—Polish Aviators’ Park at Aleja Pokoju Street, (D)—Dąbie Park, (E)—Melchiora Wańkowicza Street, near Dłubnia River, (F)—Aleja Waszyngtona Street, (G)—Biskupa Filipa Padniewskiego Street, (H)—Podrzecze Street, near Dłubnia River, (I)—Wilga River Park, (J)—Florian Nowacki Planty Park, (K)—Stanisław Skalski Park, and (L)—Decius Park (Photographed by A. Pliszko).
Figure 1. Morphological details of Potentilla indica and vegetation of study sites in Kraków, southern Poland: (A)—flowering shoot, (B)—fruiting shoots, (C)—Polish Aviators’ Park at Aleja Pokoju Street, (D)—Dąbie Park, (E)—Melchiora Wańkowicza Street, near Dłubnia River, (F)—Aleja Waszyngtona Street, (G)—Biskupa Filipa Padniewskiego Street, (H)—Podrzecze Street, near Dłubnia River, (I)—Wilga River Park, (J)—Florian Nowacki Planty Park, (K)—Stanisław Skalski Park, and (L)—Decius Park (Photographed by A. Pliszko).
Forests 15 02229 g001
Forests 15 02229 g002
Figure 2. Distribution of study sites (S1–S10) in Kraków, southern Poland (A), distribution of study plots (1–10) within transect (B), and sampling scheme within plots (C). I and II indicate sampling points of environmental parameters within 5 m-squares. Gray color indicates even-numbered plots in which soil samples were collected for chemical analyses.
Figure 2. Distribution of study sites (S1–S10) in Kraków, southern Poland (A), distribution of study plots (1–10) within transect (B), and sampling scheme within plots (C). I and II indicate sampling points of environmental parameters within 5 m-squares. Gray color indicates even-numbered plots in which soil samples were collected for chemical analyses.
Forests 15 02229 g002
Forests 15 02229 g003
Figure 3. Differences in environmental parameters between the plots invaded (Inv, gray bars) and uninvaded (Uninv, white bars) by Potentilla indica. Mean (±SD) values are presented. Asterisks indicate the level of statistical significance: * p ≤ 0.05; ** p < 0.01; ns—not significant.
Figure 3. Differences in environmental parameters between the plots invaded (Inv, gray bars) and uninvaded (Uninv, white bars) by Potentilla indica. Mean (±SD) values are presented. Asterisks indicate the level of statistical significance: * p ≤ 0.05; ** p < 0.01; ns—not significant.
Forests 15 02229 g003
Table 1. Number of species, Shannon-Wiener index, Evenness index, Simpson index and Ellenberg’s indicator values (mean ± SD) in groups of phytosociological plots. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with the Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant. Significant values of the H Kruskal–Wallis test results of multiple comparisons between particular groups are given in Tables S3 and S4.
Table 1. Number of species, Shannon-Wiener index, Evenness index, Simpson index and Ellenberg’s indicator values (mean ± SD) in groups of phytosociological plots. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with the Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant. Significant values of the H Kruskal–Wallis test results of multiple comparisons between particular groups are given in Tables S3 and S4.
GroupNumber of SpeciesShannon-Wiener Index [H’]Evenness Index [J’]Simpson Index [SIMP]Ellenberg’s Indicator Values
LightTemperatureContinentalityMoistureReactionNutrients
110.00 (±3.26)1.77 (±0.40)0.78 (±0.10)0.75 (±0.11)5.35 (±0.38)5.44 (±0.23)4.03 (±0.51)5.90 (±0.32)7.02 (±0.27)7.18 (±0.33)
217.20 (±3.01)2.14 (±0.32)0.76 (±0.10)0.79 (±0.09)6.03 (±0.31)5.62 (±0.20)4.17 (±0.50)6.00 (±0.31)7.16 (±0.32)7.37 (±0.39)
312.95 (±3.09)1.84 (±0.45)0.72 (±0.15)0.73 (±0.15)5.07 (±0.37)5.37 (±0.27)3.82 (±0.47)5.74 (±0.43)6.91 (±0.13)6.92 (±0.48)
416.00 (±1.56)2.21 (±0.32)0.80 (±0.11)0.82 (±0.09)4.71 (±0.30)5.40 (±0.22)3.96 (±0.42)5.63 (±0.32)6.63 (±0.29)6.42 (±0.24)
512.70 (±5.95)1.66 (±0.48)0.67 (±0.09)0.69 (±0.12)5.44 (±0.29)5.22 (±0.17)3.13 (±0.13)6.02 (±0.30)6.57 (±0.48)6.95 (±0.57)
622.80 (±3.79)2.57 (±0.24)0.83 (±0.09)0.85 (±0.06)5.32 (±0.81)5.46 (±0.13)3.48 (±0.14)5.64 (±0.26)5.94 (±0.38)5.99 (±0.47)
713.50 (±1.72)2.01 (±0.26)0.77 (±0.07)0.79 (±0.07)7.03 (±0.31)5.60 (±0.24)3.16 (±0.19)5.27 (±0.11)6.39 (±0.55)6.54 (±0.26)
821.30 (±5.19)2.40 (±0.28)0.79 (±0.06)0.82 (±0.06)6.41 (±0.29)5.58 (±0.22)3.28 (±0.20)5.48 (±0.14)5.92 (±0.64)6.31 (±0.60)
Kruskal–Wallis H test59.15 *38.67 *13.31 ns18.97 ns67.31 *22.70 ns55.04 *40.52 *62.83 *51.43 *
Table 2. Coverage of Potentilla indica and environmental parameters (mean ± SD) in groups of phytosociological plots. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with the Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant. Significant values of the H Kruskal–Wallis test results of multiple comparisons between particular groups are given in Table S5.
Table 2. Coverage of Potentilla indica and environmental parameters (mean ± SD) in groups of phytosociological plots. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with the Bonferroni correction); ns—not significant. Significant values of the H Kruskal–Wallis test results of multiple comparisons between particular groups are given in Table S5.
GroupCoverage of P. indicaLight Intensity [cd × sr/m2]Depth of Compact Soil Layer [cm]Soil Electrical Conductivity [mS/cm]Soil Moisture [0–10]Height of Herbaceous Layer [cm]Soil pHContent of Nitrate [mg/kg]Content of Amonium Nitrogen [mg/kg]Content of Potassium [mg/kg]Content of Phosphorus [mg/kg]
12.57 (±1.77)5339.08 (±9311.79)28.69 (±8.94)0.41 (±0.19)7.47 (±2.07)67.85 (±23.07)6.24 (±0.24)190.00 (±39.44)1.00 (±2.11)2.56 (±3.29)2.40 (±2.67)
20.40 (±0.84)2622.58
(±1853.81)		12.42 (±6.47)0.08 (±0.02)2.44 (±0.87)69.83 (±14.25)6.38 (±0.16)170.00 (±67.08)3.00 (±4.47)12.50 (±4.69)8.80 (±5.22)
30.93 (±1.23)4998.65
(±7658.86)		36.58 (±13.22)0.29 (±0.11)6.70 (±1.10)57.64 (±9.41)6.15 (±0.34)202.50 (±78.57)3.00 (±4.83)7.42 (±3.51)2.80 (±2.66)
40.40 (±0.84)4055.18
(±3349.25)		30.88 (±7.70)0.22 (±0.06)4.96 (±1.17)59.56 (±24.67)6.50 (±0.00)130.00 (±67.08)0.00 (±0.00)0.90 (±1.24)7.00 (±3.16)
50.83 (±0.76)8021.12
(±13,398.74)		20.61 (±9.17)0.25 (±0.09)5.73 (±1.58)49.89 (±13.39)6.40 (±0.22)200.00 (±70.71)0.00 (±0.00)2.70 (±3.11)5.40 (±0.89)
60.92 (±1.08)11,607.84
(±10,272.79)		15.57 (±9.33)0.36 (±0.13)6.37 (±1.64)43.07 (±27.46)6.50 (±0.00)160.00 (±82.16)0.00 (±0.00)4.38 (±1.63)5.80 (±1.79)
70.24 (±0.40)24,152.14
(±26,253.31)		11.03 (±2.21)0.24 (±0.06)6.01 (±0.97)19.50 (±4.01)6.30 (±0.45)220.00 (±75.83)3.00 (±4.47)3.28 (±1.34)7.00 (±1.41)
81.02 (±0.92)7282.02
(±5937.08)		14.61 (±7.38)0.08 (±0.03)3.59 (±1.10)27.70 (±9.18) 6.00 (±0.00)130.00 (±44.72)11.00 (±8.94)6.58 (±4.65)1.40 (±0.55)
Kruskal–Wallis H test27.73 *15.44 ns54.30 *50.04 *52.97 *49.30 *18.40 ns10.33 ns16.04 ns26.91 *25.48 ns
Table 3. Morphological features of Potentilla indica (mean ±SD) in groups of phytosociological plots. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni correction);. Significant values of the H Kruskal–Wallis test results of multiple comparisons between particular groups are given in Table S6.
Table 3. Morphological features of Potentilla indica (mean ±SD) in groups of phytosociological plots. The level of statistical significance: *—statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.0017, H Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni correction);. Significant values of the H Kruskal–Wallis test results of multiple comparisons between particular groups are given in Table S6.
GroupNLength of Pedicel [cm]Length of Petiole [cm]Width of Leaf [cm]Length of Leaf [cm]Number of StolonsLength of the Longest StolonNumber of Daughter RamtesNLength of Fruit [cm]Width of Fruit [cm]
115211.72 (±3.57)16.88 (±4.01)7.19 (±1.39)6.34 (±1.38)2.78 (±1.48)79.65 (±29.88)6.88 (±1.73)1521.16 (±0.23)1.40 (±0.30)
22010.33 (±3.09)15.34 (±3.38)8.13 (±1.41) 7.39 (±1.24)3.70 (±1.26)78.60 (±23.97)8.25 (±1.37)201.18 (±0.09)1.58 (±0.17)
31039.97 (±4.30)16.69 (±4.82)7.59 (±1.77) 6.74 (±1.62)2.89 (±1.28)89.80 (±41.78)8.66 (±2.45)371.00 (±0.16)1.14 (±0.21)
4206.13 (±1.81)8.96 (±2.47) 5.74 (±1.07) 5.00 (±0.96)2.25 (±1.02)43.51 (±20.98)6.60 (±1.96)201.08 (±0.12)1.34 (±0.16)
5909.01 (±3.89)13.67 (±5.24)5.84 (±1.54) 5.35 (±1.35)2.08 (±0.96)65.67 (±34.29)7.26 (±1.86)901.17 (±0.18)1.45 (±0.28)
6635.10 (±1.41)10.33 (±3.56)5.72 (±1.14) 5.13 (±1.01)1.33 (±0.62)68.36 (±29.84)8.70 (±2.23)470.97 (±0.16)1.15 (±0.19)
7294.03 (±1.70)4.40 (±1.68)3.75 (±0.58) 3.52 (±0.49)2.79 (±1.37)23.51 (±14.31)5.59 (±1.38)50.86 (±0.21)1.04 (±0.17)
8804.81 (±1.71)7.52 (±1.92)5.38 (±1.13) 4.86 (±0.96)2.28 (±1.18)48.85 (±25.94)7.54 (±2.29)401.02 (±0.15)1.29 (±0.24)
Kruskal–Wallis H test288.89 *297.70 *214.71 *200.25 *115.54 *135.70 *83.02 *-82.82 *89.66 *
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Pliszko, A.; Wójcik, T.; Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt, K. Phytosociological and Abiotic Factors Influencing the Coverage and Morphological Traits of the Invasive Alien Potentilla indica (Rosaceae) in Riparian Forests and Other Urban Habitats: A Case Study from Kraków, Southern Poland. Forests 2024, 15, 2229. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122229

AMA Style

Pliszko A, Wójcik T, Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt K. Phytosociological and Abiotic Factors Influencing the Coverage and Morphological Traits of the Invasive Alien Potentilla indica (Rosaceae) in Riparian Forests and Other Urban Habitats: A Case Study from Kraków, Southern Poland. Forests. 2024; 15(12):2229. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122229

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pliszko, Artur, Tomasz Wójcik, and Kinga Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt. 2024. "Phytosociological and Abiotic Factors Influencing the Coverage and Morphological Traits of the Invasive Alien Potentilla indica (Rosaceae) in Riparian Forests and Other Urban Habitats: A Case Study from Kraków, Southern Poland" Forests 15, no. 12: 2229. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122229

APA Style

Pliszko, A., Wójcik, T., & Kostrakiewicz-Gierałt, K. (2024). Phytosociological and Abiotic Factors Influencing the Coverage and Morphological Traits of the Invasive Alien Potentilla indica (Rosaceae) in Riparian Forests and Other Urban Habitats: A Case Study from Kraków, Southern Poland. Forests, 15(12), 2229. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122229

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop