Exploring the Outdoor Recreational Behavior and New Environmental Paradigm among Urban Forest Visitors in Korea, Taiwan and Indonesia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Survey Procedure
2.2. Characteristics of Six Surveyed Urban Forests in Seoul, Taipei and Jakarta
2.3. Survey Instrument and Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Visiting Behavior Comparison and NEP Scores in Three Countries
3.2. Analysis of the NEP in Korea
3.3. Analysis of the NEP in Taiwan
3.4. Analysis of the NEP in Indonesia
3.5. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Differences in Three Countries
4. Discussion
4.1. International Comparative Study in Asian Countries
4.2. Critical Elements: Having Opportunity for Nature Experience Influencing NEP
4.3. Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Survey Location | Areas | Survey Date | Area (m2) | Dominant Vegetation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Seoul forest | Seoul, Korea | 2016 June 2017 June 2018 August | 480,994 | Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Pinus parviflora, Pinus densiflora |
Bukhan mountain forest | 76,922,000 | Forsythia saxatilis | ||
Da’an urban forest | Taipei, Taiwan | 2016 August 2017 May | 258,940 | Magnolia kobus, Gardenia jasminoides |
Taman Menteng forest | Jakarta, Indonesia | 2016 September 2018 August | 24,546 | Pithecellobium dulce, Ficus lyrata Warb., Bauhinia blakeana |
Taman Suropati forest | 16,328 | Swietenia mahagoni, Terminalia catappa | ||
Hutan Kota Srengseng city forest | 150,000 | Agathis Dammara, Aleurites moluccanus |
Categories | Question Subjects |
---|---|
Characteristics | Age, gender, education, marital status |
Visiting behavior | Frequency, length of stay, motivation, companions |
New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) | |
Limits to growth | We are approaching the limit of the number of people Earth can support. |
Earth has plenty of natural resources if we just learn how to develop them. | |
Earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources. | |
Anti-anthropocentrism | Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit their needs. |
Plants and animals have as much right as humans to exist. | |
Humans were meant to dominate the rest of nature. | |
Balance of nature | When humans interfere with nature it often produces disastrous consequences. |
The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impacts of modern industrial nations. | |
The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset. | |
Anti-exceptionalism | Human ingenuity will ensure that we do not make Earth unliveable. |
Despite our special abilities, humans are still subject to the laws of nature. | |
Humans will eventually learn enough about how nature works to be able to control it. | |
Eco-crisis | Humans are severely abusing the environment. |
The so-called ‘ecological crisis’ facing humankind has been greatly exaggerated. | |
If things continue in their present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe. |
Variables | Korea (n = 169) | Taiwan (n = 217) | Indonesia (n = 278) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristics | Gender | Male | 58.7 | 33.5 | 56.0 |
Female | 41.3 | 66.8 | 44.0 | ||
Age | 20s | 9.5 | 39.7 | 6.0 | |
30s | 21.4 | 26.8 | 39.7 | ||
40s | 30.2 | 17.2 | 31.7 | ||
50s | 29.4 | 9.5 | 15.7 | ||
60s and over | 9.5 | 6.9 | 7.0 | ||
Education | High school or below | 11.1 | 20.3 | 50.0 | |
College or above | 88.9 | 79.7 | 50.0 | ||
Marital status | Single | 25.4 | 54.3 | 9.3 | |
Married or living together | 70.6 | 44.8 | 83.0 | ||
Separated or divorced | 1.6 | 0.9 | 4.7 | ||
Widowed | 2.4 | 0.9 | 3.0 | ||
Behavior | Companions | Alone | 11.9 | 12.1 | 49.0 |
With family | 36.5 | 53.0 | 36.0 | ||
With neighbor, relative | 15.9 | 1.7 | - | ||
With friend, colleague | 35.7 | 33.2 | 15.0 | ||
Motivation | Outdoor activity | 46.8 | 31.5 | 10.3 | |
Nature experience | 33.3 | 50.0 | 70.3 | ||
For the children | 9.5 | 6.9 | 19.3 | ||
Others | 10.3 | 11.6 | - | ||
Frequency | >1/week | 24.6 | 47.8 | 14.7 | |
1/month | 42.9 | 38.8 | 11.3 | ||
3–5/a | 20.6 | 7.8 | 56.7 | ||
<1/year | 11.9 | 5.6 | 17.3 | ||
Visit duration | <1 h | 42.1 | 40.1 | 33.3 | |
>2 h | 37.3 | 38.4 | 46.7 | ||
<4 h | 20.6 | 21.6 | 20.0 |
Categories | Korea | Taiwan | Indonesia | F-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Limits to growth | 3.51 | 4.00 | 3.34 | 112.727 *** |
Anti-anthropocentrism | 3.79 | 4.20 | 2.21 | 990.216 *** |
Balance of Nature | 3.66 | 4.06 | 3.65 | 43.120 *** |
Anti-exceptionalism | 3.11 | 3.98 | 3.01 | 257.784 *** |
Eco-crisis | 3.87 | 4.16 | 3.33 | 175.015 *** |
F-value | 112.238 *** | 8.951 *** | 80.912 *** | |
Average | 3.59 | 4.08 | 3.11 | 505.686 *** |
Category | Limits to Growth | Anti-Anthropocentrism | Balance of Nature | Anti-Exceptionalism | Eco-Crisis | Average | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Education | High school | 3.19 | 3.29 | 3.33 | 2.74 | 3.50 | 3.21 |
College | 3.54 | 3.85 | 3.70 | 3.15 | 3.92 | 3.63 | |
t-value (p) | −2.854 ** (0.008) | −2.798 ** (0.006) | −1.836 (0.069) | −3.375 ** (0.002) | −2.345 * (0.021) | −4.059 ** (0.001) | |
Companions | Alone | 3.67 | 3.87 | 3.58 | 2.73 | 3.82 | 3.53 |
Family | 3.64 | 3.90 | 3.76 | 3.26 | 4.10 | 3.73 | |
Neighbor | 3.02 | 3.47 | 3.32 | 2.87 | 3.62 | 3.26 | |
Friend | 3.51 | 3.84 | 3.68 | 3.23 | 3.78 | 3.61 | |
F-value (p) | 3.245 * (0.014) | 1.423 (0.230) | 1.790 (0.135) | 2.380 (0.055) | 2.817 * (0.028) | 2.924 * (0.024) | |
Motivation | Activity | 3.51 | 3.70 | 3.59 | 2.99 | 3.93 | 3.54 |
Nature | 3.49 | 3.87 | 3.70 | 3.18 | 3.64 | 3.58 | |
Children | 3.56 | 3.67 | 3.89 | 2.97 | 4.06 | 3.63 | |
Others | 3.49 | 4.03 | 3.62 | 3.51 | 4.18 | 3.76 | |
F-value (p) | 0.028 (0.994) | 1.036 (0.379) | 0.642 (0.589) | 2.205 (0.091) | 3.483 * (0.018) | 0.616 (0.606) | |
Visit frequency | 1/week < | 3.77 | 4.20 | 3.85 | 3.31 | 4.02 | 3.83 |
1/month | 3.51 | 3.78 | 3.77 | 3.06 | 4.04 | 3.63 | |
3–5/year | 3.32 | 3.55 | 3.47 | 2.97 | 3.65 | 3.39 | |
1/year > | 3.27 | 3.38 | 3.18 | 3.09 | 3.33 | 3.25 | |
F-value (p) | 2.763 * (0.045) | 6.601 * (0.000) | 4.415 ** (0.006) | 1.198 (0.313) | 7.310 *** (0.000) | 5.941 ** (0.001) |
Category | Limits to Growth | Anti-Anthropocentrism | Balance of Nature | Anti-Exceptionalism | Eco-Crisis | Average | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 4.03 | 4.15 | 4.00 | 3.91 | 4.05 | 4.03 |
Female | 3.98 | 4.23 | 4.09 | 4.01 | 4.21 | 4.10 | |
t-value (p) | 0.689 (0.491) | −1.269 (0.206) | −1.151 (0.251) | −1.622 (0.106) | −2.083 * (0.038) | −1.445 (0.150) | |
Education | High school | 3.94 | 4.09 | 4.01 | 3.96 | 3.98 | 4.00 |
College | 4.01 | 4.23 | 4.07 | 3.98 | 4.20 | 4.10 | |
t-value (p) | −0.739 (0.463) | −1.865 (0.063) | −0.677 (0.499) | −0.266 (0.790) | −2.543 * (0.012) | −1.679 (0.095) | |
Marital status | Single | 3.98 | 4.20 | 4.01 | 3.95 | 4.14 | 4.05 |
Married | 4.11 | 4.11 | 4.17 | 4.17 | 4.28 | 4.17 | |
Divorced | 3.33 | 4.17 | 4.17 | 3.83 | 4.17 | 3.93 | |
Widowed | 3.00 | 3.83 | 3.33 | 3.50 | 3.17 | 3.37 | |
F-value (p) | 3.508 ** (0.008) | 0.443 (0.777) | 1.889 (0.113) | 1.274 (0.281) | 1.920 (0.108) | 2.598 * (0.037) | |
Companions | Alone | 4.13 | 4.21 | 4.05 | 4.11 | 4.20 | 4.14 |
Family | 3.99 | 4.19 | 4.12 | 4.00 | 4.18 | 4.09 | |
Neighbor | 3.33 | 4.08 | 3.83 | 3.83 | 3.83 | 3.78 | |
Friend | 4.00 | 4.22 | 3.98 | 3.91 | 4.12 | 4.05 | |
F-value (p) | 3.208 * (0.024) | 0.190 (0.903) | 1.466 (0.225) | 1.683 (0.172) | 0.713 (0.545) | 1.391 (0.246) | |
Frequency | 1/week < | 4.15 | 4.26 | 4.30 | 4.26 | 4.41 | 4.27 |
1/month | 3.87 | 4.13 | 3.96 | 3.87 | 4.01 | 3.97 | |
3–5/year | 4.02 | 4.28 | 4.09 | 4.15 | 4.23 | 4.16 | |
1/year > | 4.08 | 4.03 | 4.18 | 4.01 | 4.23 | 4.11 | |
F-value (p) | 3.611 * (0.014) | 2.259 (0.082) | 2.639 (0.050) | 4.634 ** (0.004) | 4.275 ** (0.006) | 4.848 ** (0.003) |
Category | Limits to Growth | Anti-Anthropocentrism | Balance of Nature | Anti-Exceptionalism | Eco-Crisis | Average | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 20s | 3.11 | 2.31 | 3.70 | 3.19 | 3.19 | 3.10 |
30s | 3.34 | 2.14 | 3.63 | 2.96 | 3.24 | 3.06 | |
40s | 3.35 | 2.26 | 3.56 | 3.04 | 3.49 | 3.14 | |
50s | 3.35 | 2.30 | 3.85 | 2.91 | 3.31 | 3.15 | |
60s over | 3.41 | 2.13 | 3.67 | 3.19 | 3.33 | 3.15 | |
F-value (p) | 1.576 (0.181) | 1.532 (0.193) | 3.334 * (0.011) | 2.613 * (0.036) | 5.813 *** (0.000) | 2.824 * (0.025) | |
Education | High school | 3.32 | 2.20 | 3.71 | 3.06 | 3.30 | 3.12 |
College | 3.36 | 2.22 | 3.59 | 2.95 | 3.37 | 3.10 | |
t-value (p) | −0.743 (0.458) | −0.191 (0.849) | 2.398 * (0.017) | 2.220 * (0.027) | −1.467 (0.143) | 1.047 (0.296) | |
Marital status | Single | 3.38 | 2.08 | 3.73 | 3.11 | 3.21 | 3.09 |
Married | 3.30 | 2.29 | 3.65 | 3.08 | 3.35 | 3.15 | |
Divorced | 3.72 | 2.28 | 3.11 | 2.67 | 3.33 | 3.02 | |
Widowed | 2.96 | 2.07 | 3.74 | 2.85 | 3.44 | 3.01 | |
F-value (p) | 4.015 ** (0.002) | 1.241 (0.290) | 4.680 *** (0.000) | 2.379 * (0.039) | 0.853 (0.513) | 1.504 (0.189) | |
Companions | Alone | 3.33 | 2.20 | 3.58 | 2.96 | 3.32 | 3.08 |
Family | 3.31 | 2.24 | 3.71 | 3.03 | 3.40 | 3.14 | |
Friend | 3.45 | 2.16 | 3.74 | 3.11 | 3.21 | 3.13 | |
F-value (p) | 2.102 (0.124) | 0.526 (0.591) | 3.414 * (0.034) | 2.382 (0.094) | 3.025 (0.050) | 3.172 * (0.043) | |
Motivation | Activity | 3.18 | 2.24 | 3.56 | 3.12 | 3.34 | 3.09 |
Nature | 3.37 | 2.21 | 3.69 | 2.96 | 3.31 | 3.11 | |
Children | 3.29 | 2.20 | 3.55 | 3.14 | 3.41 | 3.12 | |
F-value (p) | 3.480 * (0.032) | 0.067 (0.935) | 2.989 (0.052) | 5.009 ** (0.007) | 1.410 (0.246) | 0.195 (0.823) | |
Frequency | >1/week | 3.26 | 2.21 | 3.77 | 3.14 | 3.27 | 3.13 |
1/month | 3.23 | 2.28 | 3.62 | 3.18 | 3.40 | 3.14 | |
3–5/a | 3.37 | 2.18 | 3.67 | 2.99 | 3.35 | 3.11 | |
<1/a | 3.37 | 2.25 | 3.51 | 2.85 | 3.29 | 3.05 | |
F-value (p) | 1.874 (0.134) | 0.527 (0.664) | 2.639 (0.050) | 5.463 ** (0.001) | 0.810 (0.489) | 1.740 (0.159) | |
Visit duration | in 1 h | 3.35 | 2.20 | 3.74 | 3.00 | 3.30 | 3.12 |
in 2 h | 3.34 | 2.23 | 3.62 | 3.01 | 3.32 | 3.10 | |
over 4 h | 3.32 | 2.17 | 3.58 | 3.00 | 3.42 | 3.10 | |
F-value (p) | 0.065 (0.937) | 0.381 (0.684) | 3.047 * (0.049) | 0.029 (0.971) | 1.554 (0.213) | 0.250 (0.779) |
Category | NEP Number | Korea | Taiwan | Indonesia | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Limits to growth | ß-coeff. | 1 | 0.820 | 0.569 | 0.601 |
6 | 0.829 | 0.480 | 0.773 | ||
11 | 0.387 | 0.699 | 0.430 | ||
CR | 0.895 | 0.796 | 0.815 | ||
AVE | 0.757 | 0.671 | 0.609 | ||
Anti-anthropo-centrism | ß-coeff. | 2 | 0.670 | 0.673 | 0.605 |
7 | 0.638 | 0.660 | 0.445 | ||
12 | 0.692 | 0.587 | 0.588 | ||
CR | 0.864 | 0.850 | 0.767 | ||
AVE | 0.680 | 0.655 | 0.527 | ||
Balance of nature | ß-coeff. | 3 | 0.563 | 0.821 | 0.737 |
8 | 0.687 | 0.589 | 0.581 | ||
13 | 0.402 | 0.641 | 0.453 | ||
CR | 0.821 | 0.873 | 0.811 | ||
AVE | 0.616 | 0.701 | 0.598 | ||
Anti-exceptionalism | ß-coeff. | 4 | 0.626 | 0.632 | 0.655 |
9 | 0.678 | 0.465 | 0.518 | ||
14 | 0.511 | 0.735 | 0.795 | ||
CR | 0.834 | 0.823 | 0.852 | ||
AVE | 0.630 | 0.615 | 0.665 | ||
Eco-crisis | ß-coeff. | 5 | 0.758 | 0.848 | 0.442 |
10 | 0.476 | 0.640 | 0.749 | ||
15 | 0.658 | 0.798 | 0.735 | ||
C.R | 0.834 | 0.920 | 0.824 | ||
AVE | 0.635 | 0.795 | 0.621 |
Chi-Square | d.f. | IFI Dlta2 | TLI rho2 | CFI | RMSEA | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Korea | 119.002 ** | 80 | 0.937 | 0.913 | 0.934 | 0.054 |
Taiwan | 103.735 * | 80 | 0.970 | 0.960 | 0.969 | 0.037 |
Indonesia | 136.922 *** | 80 | 0.915 | 0.880 | 0.911 | 0.052 |
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Kim, D.; Avenzora, R.; Lee, J.-h. Exploring the Outdoor Recreational Behavior and New Environmental Paradigm among Urban Forest Visitors in Korea, Taiwan and Indonesia. Forests 2021, 12, 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121651
Kim D, Avenzora R, Lee J-h. Exploring the Outdoor Recreational Behavior and New Environmental Paradigm among Urban Forest Visitors in Korea, Taiwan and Indonesia. Forests. 2021; 12(12):1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121651
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Doyeon, Ricky Avenzora, and Ju-hyoung Lee. 2021. "Exploring the Outdoor Recreational Behavior and New Environmental Paradigm among Urban Forest Visitors in Korea, Taiwan and Indonesia" Forests 12, no. 12: 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121651