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18 February 2026

Utilisation of Sulphur By-Products in Diverse Civil Engineering Applications: A Systematic Review

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Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, P.O. Box 44, Sohar 311, Oman
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Petroleum Development Oman, P.O. Box 81, Muscat 100, Oman
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Faculty of Business, Sohar University, P.O. Box 44, Sohar 311, Oman
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Materials2026, 19(4), 784;https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19040784
This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials (Third Edition)
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Highlights

What are the main findings?
  • Research on sulphur application in civil materials has grown significantly.
  • Sulphur concrete and sulphur asphalt exhibit durability, strength, and recyclability.
  • Modified sulphur systems help overcome brittleness and temperature sensitivity.
What are the implications of the main findings?
  • Sulphur waste streams can support sustainable construction and a circular economy.
  • Sulphur materials offer techno-economic and environmental benefits for industry.
  • Future work may validate in situ applications of sulphur concrete.

Abstract

Sulphur, a major by-product of the oil and gas industry, has emerged as a promising construction material in both sulphur concrete (SC) and sulphur-extended asphalt (SEA) applications. This review examines the development, properties, and uses of these sulphur-based construction materials over a century by following PRISMA guidelines for systematic literature selection. A bibliometric analysis highlights a surge in research activity over the last two decades. The key advantages of sulphur concrete include rapid strength gain (achieving ~50 MPa within 1–2 days) and exceptional chemical durability in extreme environments. Sulphur-bound materials exhibit high corrosion resistance, low water permeability, and full recyclability upon reheating. Challenges such as thermal shrinkage-induced brittleness and temperature sensitivity have been mitigated by using polymer-modified sulphur and mix design optimisation. Sulphur-extended asphalts benefit from increased stiffness, stability, and cost savings compared to conventional mixtures. Enhanced performance has been observed at sulphur replacement levels of 20–40% in asphalt binders. The review also summarises mixed formulations, mechanical properties, durability metrics, and innovative applications ranging from acid-resistant industrial structures to sustainable pavement materials and even extraterrestrial construction. The environmental benefits, such as up to 40% GHG reduction and complete recyclability of sulphur-based concretes, align with circular economy goals. Future research directions include improving ductility, advancing 3D printing techniques, and field validation of long-term performance. Overall, sulphur by-products can be transformed into valuable construction materials that address waste management and infrastructure durability.

1. Introduction

The global desulphurisation of fossil fuels has resulted in a persistent oversupply of elemental sulphur, creating both an environmental management challenge and an opportunity for sustainable material innovation. As illustrated in Figure 1, the current global sulphur surplus has once again intensified interest in sustainable utilisation pathways. Among potential large-scale applications, construction materials offer a particularly attractive outlet due to their volume demand, durability requirements, and long service life. Sulphur concrete (SC), also referred to as elemental sulphur concrete, is produced by mixing molten sulphur (typically 130–140 °C) with dry aggregates, forming a cement-free composite that gains strength upon cooling rather than hydration. In this system, sulphur fully replaces Portland cement and water as the binder, eliminating curing requirements and enabling rapid strength development.
Figure 1. Worldwide sulphur production in 2024 [1].
Early investigations into sulphur-based binders demonstrated exceptional chemical resistance but were limited by shrinkage cracking associated with sulphur’s phase transformation near 95 °C [2]. Renewed research since the 1970s addressed these limitations through optimised aggregate gradation and polymer modification, leading to modern sulphur concrete systems with improved thermal stability and durability [3,4]. Sulphur concrete exhibits several performance advantages over conventional Portland cement concrete, most notably rapid strength gain and superior resistance to aggressive chemical environments. Typical sulphur concretes achieve 40–60 MPa compressive strength within 1–2 days, reaching approximately 90% of ultimate strength within 24 h, compared with 28 days for conventional concrete [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. The absence of water in mixing and curing enables placement in freezing or arid environments, while the dense, impermeable sulphur matrix yields extremely low water absorption and excellent resistance to acids, salts, and sulphates [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23].
From a sustainability perspective, sulphur-based binders offer significant environmental benefits by offsetting Portland cement production, reducing CO2 emissions by at least 40%, and enabling fully recyclable, closed-loop construction systems [24,25,26,27,28,29]. At the same time, challenges related to brittleness, thermal sensitivity, and standardisation remain, motivating continued research into polymer-modified sulphur systems, optimised mix design, and field-scale validation [30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39]. Beyond rigid concrete applications, elemental sulphur has also been successfully incorporated into flexible pavements as sulphur-extended asphalt, partially replacing bitumen and improving stiffness, rutting resistance, and cost efficiency [24,26,31,38,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48]. This review synthesises the state of the art in sulphur-based concrete and asphalt, critically examining material formulations, production technologies, mechanical and durability performance, sustainability implications, and emerging applications to identify pathways towards wider industrial adoption.
A systematic literature review methodology was adopted for this study. This approach focuses on gathering evidence on a specific topic, critically assessing and synthesising the available research, and identifying existing knowledge gaps that require further investigation in future work [49]. For a rigorous systematic review, the PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) were followed to ensure transparency, accuracy, and completeness in the selection, evaluation, and reporting of the literature. The PRISMA statement, first released in July 2009, was developed to help authors enhance the quality and clarity of systematic review reporting. It outlines the essential elements needed to accurately prepare, interpret, and apply the findings of a systematic review. PRISMA serves as a comprehensive set of guidelines for authors preparing review manuscripts [50,51,52]. The systematic review followed a structured strategy that identified the central industrial by-product of interest (sulphur), the intervention being examined (its utilisation in civil engineering applications), and the anticipated outcomes (practical industrial uses). Based on this framework, the key research questions were formulated for investigation.
1.
How is sulphur currently used in civil engineering materials and applications?
2.
What mechanical and durability properties do sulphur-based materials exhibit compared with conventional materials?
3.
What environmental and economic benefits arise from using sulphur in construction?
4.
What challenges and research gaps must be addressed to enable the wider industrial adoption of sulphur-based materials?

2. Methodology

The research followed a structured process, i.e., narrowing the topic, defining keywords, selecting databases, filtering irrelevant studies, and analysing the final literature set [53]. Quality assessment followed the PRISMA checklist 2020 (see the Supplementary Materials).
The eligibility criteria for the included studies are laboratory or field-based investigations with clearly defined conventional concrete or asphalt control mixes, the standardised incorporation of sulphur by-products, and comparable baseline material properties to ensure valid comparisons. Studies were also required to evaluate performance using well-defined mechanical and durability indicators, such as strength, stiffness, rutting resistance, moisture damage, and chemical resistance.
The exclusion criteria included studies unrelated to civil engineering applications, laboratory-scale chemical or material synthesis studies without structural relevance, narrative review articles, conference abstracts, and case reports.
Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes (PICO):
Population: Civil engineering materials and systems, including concrete and asphalt mixtures used in structural, pavement, or infrastructure applications.
Intervention: Utilisation of sulphur by-products (e.g., elemental sulphur, modified sulphur, sulphur-based binders) as partial or full replacements in concrete or asphalt mixtures.
Comparison: Conventional concrete or asphalt mixtures without sulphur incorporation, or mixtures using traditional binders and aggregates.
Outcomes: Primary outcomes included mechanical performance and durability indicators such as compressive strength, tensile strength, stiffness, rutting resistance, moisture damage, and chemical or thermal resistance. Secondary outcomes included constructability, field performance, long-term behaviour, and practical implementation in civil engineering applications.
The comprehensive electronic search using the keywords sulphur, sulfur, concrete, asphalt, and waste was performed in September 2025 across Scopus and Web of Science, applying Boolean operators as appropriate and without any time restriction. The initial search yielded 912 records, which were screened to remove duplicates and studies outside the research scope. The keyword combinations that yielded the most relevant results across the databases were (TITLE-ABS-KEY (sulphur) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (sulfur) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (concrete) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (asphalt) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (waste)). The detailed PRISMA-based search steps and exclusion criteria are presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Selection of relevant articles for the systematic review on the use of sulphur by-products in civil engineering applications. PRISMA methodology flowchart [54].
Two independent reviewers screened titles and abstracts for relevance, followed by a full-text assessment of potentially eligible studies based on the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus. All records were reviewed, and duplicate entries were removed. Manual screening of reference lists from the included studies and relevant reviews was also performed. Studies not related to civil engineering materials, material synthesis research without structural relevance, review articles, conference abstracts, and case reports were excluded. In contrast, studies addressing the utilisation of sulphur by-products in concrete or asphalt for civil engineering applications and reporting strength, durability, or field performance outcomes were included.
Owing to substantial heterogeneity in experimental methodologies, performance indicators, and sulphur incorporation approaches, a quantitative meta-analysis was not feasible. Instead, the findings were synthesised descriptively, focusing on comparative performance trends, consistency of observed effects, and the relative strength and durability behaviour of different sulphur-based material systems.
The present study also utilised scientometrics, a quantitative analytical tool that has become widely used for evaluating scientific output, tracking research progress, identifying emerging trends, and uncovering the underlying structure of knowledge domains across science, scientific communication, and science policy [51]. To contextualise the development of sulphur-based construction materials, a bibliometric analysis employing the bibloshiny package in R was conducted on the scientific literature from the 1970s to 2025 [52]. Using the above-stated tool, the study examined annual publication trends, thematic areas, and keywords related to sulphur by-product utilisation in construction, providing insight into both global and regional scales. Core keywords were identified, and co-occurrence networks and visual knowledge maps were developed to illustrate the distribution of research activity and the emergence of key thematic clusters.

3. Discussion on Concrete and Asphalt Applications

3.1. Materials and Processing

Sulphur concrete uses elemental sulphur (S8) as the binder, typically a by-product of oil and gas desulphurisation. Sulphur is heated above its melting point (~119 °C) to form a low-viscosity liquid. At temperatures above ~159 °C, polymerisation and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) release may occur, requiring careful control. Mixing is therefore conducted at 130–145 °C to ensure workability and safety [29,55]. ACI recommends 132–141 °C during handling [11], while asphalt applications use ~140 °C, kept below ~155 °C [47].
Modified sulphur binders improve performance. Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), typically added at 5–10%, reacts with sulphur to form polymeric sulphur cement, reducing crystallinity and shrinkage [56]. Organic polysulfide polymers (Thiokol) enhance grout stability. In sulphur-extended asphalt, additives such as Shell’s Thiopave suppress fumes and improve mixing [33]. Bitumen-modified sulphur concrete (BMSC) incorporates 5–10% bitumen to increase ductility and reduce cracking [6,57].
Sulphur concrete uses conventional aggregates such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone, which must be completely dried and often preheated up to 150 °C to avoid foaming or explosions when in contact with molten sulphur. Well-graded aggregates are preferred to minimise voids, binder demand, shrinkage, and cost [58]. Fine fillers (5–15%), including fly ash, limestone dust, or silica flour, improve packing density and suspension stability [59]. In road applications, dense-graded limestone and sand aggregates have shown strengths comparable to cement concrete [45].
Typical sulphur concrete contains 15–30% sulphur binder and 70–85% aggregate by mass, with early studies identifying ~25% sulphur as optimal before excess binder reduces strength. Modern practice uses the minimum sulphur required to fill voids. Chempruf sulphur concrete employs 22% modified sulphur and 78% aggregate, achieving ~40 MPa strength with negligible water absorption [60]. A high-strength mix using ~20% sulphur, 5% fly ash, and basalt aggregate exceeded 70 MPa [61]. In sulphur-extended asphalt, 20–40% of bitumen is replaced with sulphur, e.g., 3.0% bitumen + 2.0% sulphur in a 5.0% binder mix [31]. Table 1 shows a summary of sulphur-based mix designs and their details.
Table 1. Examples of sulphur-based mix designs, processing details, and achieved properties.
Sulphur concrete requires no moist curing and gains strength rapidly, with demoulding in 30–60 min and full strength typically within 24 h, enabling fast precast production cycles [29,65]. Sulphur-extended asphalt behaves like hot-mix asphalt, with slightly extended workability and readiness for traffic within hours, requiring no additional curing [41]. Sulphur concrete production integrates concrete and asphalt technologies, using dried and heated aggregates, heated mixers, and temperature-controlled handling to ensure uniform coating and rapid placement [29]. Aggregates are typically heated to 150–160 °C, and mixing is completed within minutes using pugmill or rotary mixers designed for corrosion resistance [11,37]. Pre-heated moulds are required due to rapid setting, with casting similar to asphalt placement [29,64]. Recent advances include the 3D printing of sulphur concrete with precise thermal control [63,66]. Sulphur-extended asphalt can be produced in conventional plants with minor modifications, maintaining standard compaction criteria and performance [33,41].
Quality control for sulphur concrete includes ensuring dry aggregates, verifying mixing temperature (~135 °C), and assessing fresh mix flow, with adjustments made by heating, sulphur addition, cooling, or filler use [66]. Hardened properties such as compressive strength, density, and water absorption are tested early, as strength develops rapidly [29,37]. Sulphur asphalt is evaluated using standard asphalt tests, while H2S monitoring confirms that emissions remain within safe limits (<5 ppm) under controlled conditions [33,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,67].

3.2. Strength and Durability Properties

Sulphur concrete (SC) exhibits high compressive strength comparable to or exceeding conventional Portland cement concrete, with typical values of 40–60 MPa and optimised mixes reaching ~80 MPa. Rapid strength development is notable, with basalt-based SC achieving 58 MPa in 2 days compared to ~30 MPa for cement concrete at 28 days [34,68]. SC also shows a high elastic modulus (>25 GPa) and similar density to conventional concrete, though its flexural and tensile strengths are relatively lower, indicating more brittle behaviour due to the homogeneous sulphur matrix and absence of creep-related microcracking [19,37,55,61,62,69]. Polymer modification or fibre reinforcement can improve ductility, with polymers being more practical at high mixing temperatures [70]. At elevated temperatures, unmodified SC softens above ~80 °C and has limited fire resistance, although it does not propagate flames or smoke [30,31,32]. Modified sulphur can raise the softening point to 100–120 °C. At low temperatures, SC becomes stiffer but retains excellent freeze–thaw resistance due to minimal water absorption, with strength increases reported at −20 °C [17].
SC demonstrates exceptional durability in aggressive environments, showing negligible degradation in acids and salts, strong resistance to sulphate attack, and proven long-term performance in sewer and marine applications [11,29,58,60,65]. It also exhibits negligible creep and zero drying shrinkage, with thermal contraction as the primary strain mechanism [11,33,61]. Sulphur-extended asphalt improves stiffness, rutting resistance, and aging performance, with moderate sulphur contents enhancing Marshall stability and durability, particularly in hot climates [3,26,44,45,46,48,71,72,73,74]. Sulphur-based concrete and asphalt are high-performance, durable materials with rapid strength gain and exceptional chemical resistance, particularly suited to aggressive and water-limited environments. However, their broader adoption depends on optimised mix design, temperature control, and modifier selection to balance brittleness and thermal sensitivity while maximising long-term performance and sustainability benefits.

3.3. Performance of Sulphur Concrete vs. Conventional Concrete

The results from numerous studies confirm that sulphur concrete can achieve mechanical performance on par with conventional concrete in compression, while vastly outperforming it in certain durability aspects. Table 2 summarises the key physical and durability properties of sulphur concrete compared to conventional Portland cement concrete, highlighting the benefits of sulphur-based material. As shown, sulphur concrete excels in rapid strength development, acid resistance, impermeability, and recyclability, while its main weaknesses lie in its behaviour at high temperatures and lower ductility.
Table 2. Comparative properties of sulphur concrete (with polymer modifier) vs. ordinary Portland cement concrete [5,11,12,13,14,17,19,20,23,27,28,29,30,32,33,34,35,36,39,55,56,58,60,61,62,65,66,69,70].

3.4. Applications and Case Studies

Sulphur-based construction materials have been applied or proposed in a variety of contexts, exploiting their unique properties. Table 3 categorises major application areas. Sulphur concrete and sulphur-modified asphalts find their niche in extreme conditions, such as chemical extremity (acid, salt) and environmental (freezing, space vacuum). The Bemo Rail sulphur concrete rail track sleepers eliminate the need for impregnated timber prone to rots and periodic replacement and avoid steel rebar, which can corrode in moist environments. These sleepers have passed European railway tests, demonstrating equal load-bearing capacity and vibration performance as per the standard. Additionally, after their service life, they can be melted and recast, implementing a circular economy in railway infrastructure for the first time [29].
Table 3. Notable applications of sulphur concrete and sulphur asphalt in construction.
Another successful application is sulphur concrete blocks for construction. In Kuwait, a project produced small precast sulphur concrete units for buildings and pavements, finding them simple to manufacture and with “very interesting characteristics”. These blocks were used in a trial building that showcased the material’s viability. The blocks had sharp edges and smooth surfaces, indicating good mould reproduction, and they were completely cured within hours. Their acid resistance also made them suitable for use in foundation courses where sulphate-rich soils would attack normal blocks.

3.5. Sustainability and Frontiers

From a sustainable development perspective, the utilisation of sulphur by-products in construction exemplifies the conversion of industrial waste into a valuable resource. Global sulphur production exceeds tens of millions of tonnes annually (approximately 70 million tonnes in the 2020s [1]), and a significant portion is not absorbed by conventional markets such as sulphuric acid manufacture. Stockpiled sulphur poses environmental risks, including dust emissions and acid runoff, while occupying valuable land. Sulphur concrete provides a long-term, stable sink for this material, effectively immobilising sulphur for decades, with the additional advantage of full recyclability at end of life. In contrast, Portland cement production accounts for nearly 8% of global CO2 emissions and offers limited material recovery once incorporated into concrete. Even the partial substitution of cement with sulphur-based binders could therefore yield substantial reductions in both greenhouse gas emissions and industrial waste. Life-cycle assessments suggest that sulphur-based concrete can reduce environmental impacts by up to 40% in selected applications [58]. Nevertheless, comprehensive, system-level LCA studies are still required to fully capture circularity, long-term performance, and sustainability trade-offs.
The extraterrestrial application is particularly intriguing and has reinvigorated research interest. As Wang and Snoeck [28] describe, sulphur is likely abundant on Moon/Mars in forms that can be extracted and melted. Waterless construction is a priority for off-world habitats, making sulphur concrete a leading candidate material for on a lunar base. Gruber et al. [78] recently performed the material characterisation of Martian regolith sulphur concrete and even simulated the thermomechanical loads on a Mars habitat dome made of sulphur concrete. Their experiments found that the material withstood cyclic day–night temperature swings (−60 °C to +20 °C) and remained intact under expected internal pressurisation and gravity loads.

3.6. Limitations and Challenges

The principal limitation is thermal sensitivity, particularly concerns over strength loss under fire exposure, which has confined its use to non-structural or compression-dominated applications such as pipes, blocks, and underground and marine works. Although fire-protective systems could enable structural use, they increase cost and complexity. Adoption is also influenced by the regional availability and price volatility of elemental sulphur, which is abundant and low-cost in some regions but requires importation in others. Health and safety considerations also play a key role. Working with hot molten sulphur requires training and precautions against burns and toxic gases. Construction crews are familiar with hot asphalt, so sulphur concrete is not entirely new; however, any mishap (overheating sulphur above ~200 °C) could release dangerous H2S. This has perhaps made some companies hesitant in adaptation. However, with proper automated equipment and ventilation (as used in industrial precast plants), these risks are manageable. Notably, the UAE researchers El Gamal et al. [37] developed an integrated mixing machine for sulphur concrete with safety features and demonstrated that lab-scale production can be done reliably. Most safety concerns associated with sulphur concrete production have now been effectively addressed through improved equipment design and process control. A notable industrial-scale milestone is the successful deployment of sulphur concrete railway sleepers by Bemo Rail [29], demonstrating safe and reliable manufacturing under real operating conditions. These advances suggest that further technological refinements are likely to continue mitigating production-related safety concerns and support broader industrial adoption.

4. Bibliometric Overview of Sulphur Application in Civil Engineering

To contextualise the development of sulphur-based construction materials, a bibliometric analysis [52] was conducted on the scientific literature from 1970 to 2025. Figure 3 illustrates the annual number of publications on sulphur concrete and related topics over recent decades. Early research activity peaked in the late 1970s and 1980s following the oil embargo era (when interest in alternative materials grew). A noticeable resurgence occurred from the mid-2000s onwards, coinciding with heightened environmental focus on waste reutilisation and sustainable materials. This growth has been spurred by global sulphur oversupply and the drive for low-CO2 construction solutions [1]. Countries’ performance in publishing research on sulphur-based construction materials has also remarkably increased, with a larger number of effective studies reported by China and the USA (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Annual publication trend in sulphur-based construction material (1970s–2025), showing a marked increase in output in the last two decades.
Figure 4. Country-wise publication over time in sulphur-based construction material (1970s–2025).
The co-occurrence network shown in Figure 5 provides a comprehensive visualisation of the conceptual landscape within the literature on sulphur-based construction materials. The central prominence of the term “sulphur” reflects its relevance to themes such as concretes, durability, corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, and cement replacement. The dominant blue cluster highlights long-standing research on sulphur concrete, encompassing topics such as acid resistance, water absorption, concrete additives, and emerging applications including lunar and Martian construction, demonstrating the material’s versatility and relevance to both terrestrial and extraterrestrial engineering [1,5,37,60,61,62,63,64]. The red cluster represents studies on sulphur-extended asphalt, characterised by connections to aggregates, fillers, mixture design, recycling, and material handling, indicating sustained interest in performance enhancement and sustainable pavement technologies [3,26,31,45,46]. A smaller green cluster links sulphur research to vulcanisation and rubber–sulphur chemistry, illustrating multidisciplinary intersections with polymer science. Overall, the network reveals a mature and evolving research domain with strong emphasis on performance, sustainability, and innovative applications.
Figure 5. Keyword co-occurrence network showing major research clusters related to sulphur-based construction materials, including sulphur concrete, sulphur-extended asphalt, and sulphur–polymer interactions.
The thematic map presented in Figure 6 illustrates the conceptual structure of research on sulphur-based construction materials through the dimensions of centrality (relevance) and density (development). Themes in the upper-right quadrant represent motor themes, indicating well-developed and highly influential areas such as durability, aggregates, binders, compressive strength, and sulphur concretes. These topics form the methodological and performance-oriented core of current sulphur material research. The lower-right quadrant contains basic themes, including concrete, sulphur concrete, and Portland cement, which exhibit high relevance but moderate development, reflecting foundational topics that support most studies in this field. The upper-left quadrant identifies niche themes, such as sulphur dioxide and gas oils, which are highly specialised but less central to mainstream civil engineering applications. The lower-left quadrant contains emerging or declining themes, such as desulphurisation, compression testing, and polysulfides, suggesting early-stage exploration or reduced recent emphasis. Overall, the map highlights the emergence of sulphur-based construction materials and the increasing importance of durability and composite performance.
Figure 6. Thematic map showing motor, basic, niche, and emerging themes in sulphur-based construction materials research based on centrality and density.
Overall, the bibliometric overview confirms a rapidly growing and diversifying knowledge base. Initially focused on proof-of-concept and durability (1970s–1990s), research since 2000 has expanded into performance optimisation, field implementation (pavement trials), and frontier innovations (3D-printed sulphur structures for planetary habitats).

5. Future Prospects and Research Needs

While current results are very favourable, there remain areas for further research and development.

5.1. Improving Ductility and Structural Use

Finding ways to increase the tensile capacity and post-crack behaviour of sulphur concrete would open it to load-bearing structural roles. Fiber reinforcement (steel, basalt fibres) is one approach, and embedded mesh or composite action with steel sections is another. Thus, non-metallic reinforcement such as GFRP rods might be more suitable for sulphur concrete elements if needed.

5.2. Hybrid Systems

The concept of sulphur–polymer–cement hybrids is relatively unexplored. Imagine a concrete where a small amount of cement is included just to improve high-temperature resilience or to bond with conventional concrete elements. New chemistries like magnesium phosphate cements or geopolymers might be compatible with sulphur if carefully proportioned. So, the possibility of creating a two-phase binder that could have multi-stage hardening can also be tested.

5.3. Standardisation and Codes

A significant hurdle to widespread adoption is the lack of standardised design codes and specifications for sulphur concrete. Organisations like ACI have published guides [11] but no building code provisions yet. As more data becomes available on long-term performance, it would be valuable to develop codes for sulphur concrete masonry units or sulphur concrete sewer pipes, so a confident adaptation can be implemented. The circularity of sulphur concrete is also required to be studied in detail to demonstrate the effect of heating on the performance of aggregates and the resulting mechanical properties.

5.4. Field Demonstrations

More full-scale demonstration projects are needed to convince stakeholders. For sulphur-extended asphalt, every successful highway project builds confidence, such as the recent implementation in a Kazakhstan highway of employing sulphur asphalt, which is a big step [79]. Similar pilot projects for sulphur concrete blocks or panels in small buildings would help illustrate the practicality and identify any unforeseen issues in real environments. The Kuwait sulphur concrete block project was a good start, and others could follow in countries with sulphur surpluses [55].

5.5. Extraterrestrial Validation

The testing of sulphur concrete in simulated lunar/Martian conditions (vacuum, radiation, low gravity) is on the research horizon. Small prototypes in vacuum chambers, or eventually on the Moon, could show how sulphur concrete behaves outside Earth [28,63,64,78]. One challenge is how sulphur’s phase change might behave in very low gravity or extreme cold; it might actually be beneficial because cooling is quick in a vacuum, locking in the structure. In addition, the absence of atmosphere means no oxidation of sulphur, which is good.
In summary, modern sulphur concretes represent a substantial advancement over the rudimentary sulphur mortars developed a century ago, evolving into engineered composite materials that effectively address earlier limitations through optimised mix design and modification strategies. In parallel, sulphur-extended asphalts have emerged as viable modifiers for contemporary pavements, offering a compelling balance of mechanical performance, economic efficiency, and environmental benefit. The rapidly expanding body of literature, as reflected in the bibliometric overview, indicates growing recognition of this potential within both academia and industry. To enable widespread commercial adoption, future efforts should prioritise enhancing ductility and structural reliability through polymer modification and compatible reinforcement systems, establishing standardised design codes supported by long-term performance data, and executing large-scale field demonstrations. Together, these priorities directly target the technical, regulatory, and confidence barriers that must be overcome to achieve meaningful market uptake within the next decade.

6. Conclusions

Sulphur-based concrete and asphalt materials represent a compelling paradigm shift in construction, transforming an abundant industrial by-product into a high-performance, circular construction resource. This review demonstrates that, when properly formulated and processed, sulphur concrete consistently achieves compressive strengths of 40–60 MPa within 24 h and exhibits exceptional durability in chemically aggressive and water-limited environments. Sulphur-extended asphalts similarly show enhanced stiffness and rutting resistance, with field applications confirming performance equal to or exceeding that of conventional mixtures. The rapid strength gain, chemical resistance, zero water demand, and recyclability position sulphur-based materials as particularly attractive for precast non-structural elements, corrosion-resistant industrial infrastructure, and waterless/remote/extraterrestrial construction.
Beyond these established advantages, the trajectory of current research indicates a transition from material feasibility towards system-level innovation. Active research frontiers, including polymer-modified sulphur binders, hybrid cement–sulphur systems, additive manufacturing, and extraterrestrial construction, are reshaping sulphur concrete from a niche alternative into a platform material for advanced construction technologies. Notably, developments driven by lunar and Martian construction concepts, where waterless binders are essential, are accelerating innovations in automation, thermal control, and rapid manufacturing that are equally beneficial for terrestrial infrastructure.
Despite this progress, several critical gaps remain. The long-term behaviour of sulphur concrete under elevated temperatures, fire exposure, and sustained tensile loading requires deeper investigation, alongside standardised design methods to manage brittleness. Equally pressing is the lack of harmonised international standards, limited practitioner familiarity, and the need for robust pilot-scale demonstrations that quantify life-cycle performance, safety, and economic viability. Addressing these gaps is essential for regulatory acceptance and industry confidence.
Overall, the accumulated evidence suggests that sulphur-based construction materials are approaching a tipping point. As decarbonisation pressures intensify and circular economy strategies become imperative, sulphur concrete and sulphur-extended asphalt are well positioned to evolve from experimental solutions into mainstream materials for targeted applications. By converting sulphur stockpiles from an environmental liability into durable infrastructure assets, the construction sector can advance sustainability goals while enhancing performance, speed, and resilience on Earth and potentially beyond.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ma19040784/s1: Table S1: PRISMA 2020 Checklist.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, M.U.Q. and M.A.J.; methodology, M.U.Q.; software, M.U.Q. and R.B.; validation, A.A.-S., M.R., H.A.-H. and G.A.-K.; formal analysis, M.U.Q. and R.B.; investigation, M.U.Q. and M.A.J.; resources, A.A.-S. and M.R.; data curation, W.M.T. and W.H.W.B.; writing—original draft preparation, M.U.Q. and M.A.J.; writing—review and editing, M.U.Q., R.B., and A.A.-S.; visualisation, M.A.J. and H.A.-H.; funding acquisition, M.U.Q. and W.H.W.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research and APC were funded by Petroleum Development Oman, grant number EJAAD/PDO/2024/01.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to their colleagues at Petroleum Development Oman and Sohar University for their consistent support during the compilation of the presented study.

Conflicts of Interest

Authors Ali Al-Shamakhi and Mohammed Rumhi are employed by the Petroleum Development Oman. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication. The remaining authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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