Color Conversion Light-Emitting Diodes Based on Carbon Dots: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials for Frequency Down-Conversion LEDs
2.1. Phosphors
2.2. Quantum Dots (QDs)
2.3. Carbon Dots (CDs)
3. CD Photoluminescence Quenching
4. CD Preparation
5. Fluorescent CDs in Solid-State Form
5.1. Solid-State Fluorescence in Matrices
5.2. Self-Quenching-Resistant CDs
6. Color Conversion CD-Based LEDs
6.1. AIQ and Possible Solutions
6.2. Chromaticity and Luminescence Properties
6.3. QY Improvement
6.4. Luminous Intensity and Luminous Efficiency
6.5. Stability
6.6. Biocompatibility
6.7. Applications of CD-Based LED in Telecommunications
6.8. Synoptic and Chronological Framework of Color Conversion CD-Based LEDs
7. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Precursors | Preparation Method | QY (%) | LED λexc (nm) | LED λemis (nm) | CIE (x,y) | CCT (K) | CRI | Luminous Efficacy (lm/W) | Encapsulant | LED Emission Color | Notes | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2013 | acrylamide, cadmium chloride, N-acetyl- L-cysteine (NAC), sodium borohydride, tellurium powder, sodium hydroxide | plasma-induced method (150 W) | ~6% | 380 | 490 (FWHM: 110 nm) | (0.20, 0.18) CDs (0.38, 0.36) mix | NR | 87 | 30 (@350 mA) | silicone (OE-6550A: OE-6550B) | blue (CDs), white (mix) | CDs mixed with CdTe QDs | [83] |
2014 | citric acid, (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) (1:1) | hydrothermal method (180 °C, 4 h) | 20 | 380 | broadband (two peaks at 470 and 550) | (0.27, 0.32) mix | 9051 | 71 | NR | silicone | white (mix) | CDs mixed with CDs nanocrystals | [84] |
citric acid, AAPMS | heating from a solution (240 °C, 1 min) | NR | 400 | 490 | (0.22–0.24, 0.38–0.43) | NR | NR | NR | silicone | bluish white | CDs embedded in silica, KCl, KBr, NaCl | [86] | |
poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), glycerol | one-step pyrolysis | 9 | 380 | broadband (two peaks at 440 and 470) | (0.27, 0.32) | NR | NR | NR | silicone | white | CDs dispersed in a thermocurable resin (silicone) | [156] | |
[3–(2-aminoethylamino)propyl]trimethoxysilane (AEATMS), citric acid | pyrolysis (240 °C, 2 min) | NR | 385 | 450 | (0.321, 0.312) at 10 mA (0.351, 0.322) at 30 mA | 3825–6452 | 93 | NR | PMMA | cold and warm white | CDs with zinc copper indium sulfide core–shell QDs | [85] | |
2015 | EDA | exothermic reaction between P2O5 and H2O | 28.5 | 360 (48 W) | broad band | (0.22, 0.33) at 360 nm of excitation | NR | NR | NR | PVA | bluish white | single precursor; stability after 16 h of irradiation | [87] |
PVA | one-step hydrothermal process | NR | 460 | 550 | (0.28, 0.27) | NR | NR | NR | bluish white | intercrossed carbon nanorings (with relatively pure hydroxy surface states); AIQ is reduced | [91] | ||
N-(β-aminoethyl)-γ-aminopropyl methyldimethoxy silane (AEAPMS), citric acid | pyrolysis (220 °C, 10 min) | 78 | 460 | 570 | (0.32, 0.33) | ~6190 | 78.9 | 58.1 | epoxy-resin | white | CD-doped sodium borosilicate gel (CD-NBS gel) | [88] | |
citric acid, EDA | hydrothermal method | NR | 385 | ~460 | (0.326, 0.343) at 50 mA | 2805–7786 | 85–96 | 4.9 | silicone | high CRI WLEDs | phosphors based on the combination of CDs and polymer dots | [89] | |
organic acid, silane | decomposing organic acid in silane coupling agent | NR | 460 (10 W) | broad band (two main peaks at 550 and 600) | (0.376, 0.374) for thickness of 400 μm | 2500–10,000 | NR | NR | epoxy matrix deposited on polystyrene substrate | white | different colors depends on the thickness of the film where CDs are dispersed | [102] | |
AEAPMS, citric acid | pyrolysis (240 °C, 1 min) | 47 | 385 | 455, 550, 575, 585, 610 | (0.22, 0.22) (0.34, 0.43) (0.42, 0.51) (0.46, 0.50) (0,52, 0.46) | NR | NR | 1.21 cd/A | PMMA | blue, green, yellow, orange, red | five monochrome LEDs obtained by varying the CD concentration | [103] | |
2016 | glucose, polyethylene glycol (PEG) 200 | one-step hydrothermal method | 3.5 | 365 | broad band centered at 544 | (0.32, 0.37) | 5584 | NR | NR | epoxy resin | cool white light | glucose is first used as a carbon source | [157] |
EDA, tetra-acetic acid (EDTA), ethylene glycol(EG) | microwave-assisted hydrothermal method | NR | 365 | broad band centered at 550 | (0.34, 0.38) | 5078 | 84 | NR | PMMA | white | CDs with different functional groups | [158] | |
folic acid, chloridric acid | hydrothermal treatment | 36 (phosphorescence + fluorescence) | 360 | NR | (0.213, 0.204) (0.338, 0.363) | NR | NR | NR | melting recrystallization urea and biuret from the heating urea | blue white | phosphorescent N-doped CDs (NCDs) | [124] | |
L-serine and L-tryptophan (molar ratio 3:1) at different pH values | one-pot aqueous synthesis controlled by pH | 16.3 (pH ≈ 8.1) 26.99 (3 < pH < 7) 46.83 (1 < pH < 3) | 365 | broad band (410−700) | (0.29, 0.31) | 6786 | 81 | NR | DMMA | cool white | crosslinked polymer carbon film (pH > 7, 200 °C) polymer carbon nanosheets (3 < pH < 7, 200 °C), amorphous carbon structures (1 < pH < 3, 200 °C) supersmall CDs (pH = 0.5, 300 °C) | [126] | |
citric acid, ammonium hydroxide | ammonium hydroxide modulated hydrothermal method | 40 | 360 (1 W) | broad band centered at 450 (only CDs) | (0.18, 0.19) CDs’ LED (0.33, 0.37) RGB white | 5447 (at 100 mA) | 95.1 (at 100 mA) | NR | silicone, ethanol | white | mix of blue emission CDs, green emission SrSi2O2N2:Eu, red emission Sr2Si5N8:Eu | [130] | |
aminopropyl methyl polysiloxane (AMS), citric acid | one-step solvothermal method | 16 | 460 | 590 | (0.33, 0.28) | NR | 66.6 | 14 | AMS-CDs crosslinked silicone rubbers (SRs) | white | AMS-CDs have a dual role of luminescence and encapsulation layer | [159] | |
2017 | p-phenylenediamine (p-PD), formamide (FA) | solvothermal method (200 °C, 1 h) | 10–15 (orange CDs) 20–30 (blue CDs) | 465 (350 mA) | 480−780 | (0.283, 0.246) - (0.470, 0.358) only CDs (0.323, 0.326) - (0.419, 0.376) CDs + Ce:YAG | 14,570 - 2158 only CDs 5977 - 3089 CDs + Ce:YAG | 73.3 (only CDs) 85 (CDs + Ce:YAG) | 60–80 | polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) | white | mix of orange-emitting CDs and Ce:YAG | [104] |
NR (CDs produced by Nanjing JANUS) | NR | 40 (reported by CD manufacturer) | UV (λ NR) | 433–600 | vary in a large gamut with TiO2 nanoparticles concentrations (at a fixed CD concentration of 10 wt%) | from 3000 to 19,000 | from 40 to 85 | ~1.4 (increased by 31% with TiO2 nanoparticles) | silicone (mixed in a CDs-chloroform solution) | from cool to warm white | TiO2 nanoparticles used for enhancing the light scattering ability of the encapsulant | [133] | |
citric acid, urea (dissolved in N,N-dimethylformamide -DMF) | hydrothermal method | 48.5 | 460 | broad band | (0.4595, 0.3925) (0.03 g CDs in 4 g OSi) | 2561 (0.03 g CDs in 4 g OSi) | 92.6 (0.03 g CDs in 4 g OSi) | 30.6 (0.03 g CDs in 4 g Osi) | N-(b-aminoethyl)-c-amin-o-propyl methyl dimethoxy silane (Osi) | warm white | red emission CDs (casted on Ce3+: YAG phosphor in glass (Ce: PiG) | [92] | |
citric acid, AEAPMS, nitrogen | one-pot hot injecting method | 24.5 | 460 | broad band 500–700 | (0.33, 0.35) (0.6 mm-thick) | 5435 (0.6 mm-thick) | 74.6 (0.6 mm-thick) | 41.26 (0.6 mm-thick) | Ag nanoparticle solution | from bluish to neutral white | surface plasmon resonance from Ag nanoparticles enhances CD fluorescence | [134] | |
o-phenylenediamine, pPD, N,N-dimethyl formamide (DMF) (solvent) | hydrothermal method | 52.4 | 460 | broad band | (0.3943, 0.3869) (CDs + Ce:PiG) | 3722 (CDs + Ce:PiG) | 83 (CDs + Ce:PiG) | 66.17 (CDs + Ce:PiG) | polyvinyl butyral (PVB) | warm white (CDs + Ce:PiG) | CDs shift gradually from 520 nm to 630 nm increasing their concentration in solution or changing the solvent polarity (solvatochromism) | [105] | |
citric acid, urea (solvents: water, glycerol, DMF) | solvothermal synthesis | 30–40 | 395, 440 | 448, 515, 540, 570, 603, 622, 638 | (0.34, 0.31) (WLED) | 5048 (WLED) | 82.4 (WLED) | 8.34 (WLED) | silica | blue, cyan, green, yellow, orange, red, white | realization of full-color emissive CDs by exploiting the solvatochromism of three different (water, glycerol, DMF) | [106] | |
1,3-Dihydroxynaphthalene, KIO4 (dissolved in ethanol) | dehydrative condensation and dehydrogenative planarization (DCDP) method and solvothermally treatment | 53 | 365 | 430, 510, 620 | (0.3924, 0.3912) | 3875 | 97 | 31.3 (at 20 mA) | PMMA | warm white | three layers of blue-, green-, and red-emitting CDs | [145] | |
citric acid, Silane Coupler KH-602, nitrogen | one-pot method using CTAB as the cationic surfactant, NaSal as the structure-directing agent, TEA as a catalyst, and BTEE and TEOS as the silica source | 29.8 | 362 | 470, 612 | (0.294, 0.280) (0.356, 0.343) | NR | 85–86 | NR | silica | white | dual-emitting CDs/CaAlSiN3:Eu2+-silica powder; applicability as a lighting source for plant growth | [160] | |
citric acid, N-(2-aminoethyl)-3- aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (KH792) | one-step solvothermal method | 450 | 530 | 60,96 | polymer | green | CDs converting blue light to green light | [107] | |||||
citric acid, EDA | one-step microwave- assisted hydrothermal method | 75.96 | 365 | weak peak at 442, strong peak at 572 | (0.42, 0.40) | 3416 | NR | NR | silicone | warm white | N-passivated CDs show record QY values | [140] | |
oil-soluble 1,3,6-trinitropyrene (TNP) (as C and N sources), various solvents: toluene, acetone, EA, DMF) | solvothermal synthesis | 65.93 | 460 | broad band between 540 and 610 | (0.32, 0.31) | 6300 | NR | NR | PMMA | white | mix of long-wavelength emitting CDs and green phosphors; effect of the solvents on the CD emission | [161] | |
citric acid, organosilane | one-pot pyrolysis method | 25–55 | ~450 | ~550 | (0.24, 0.28)–(0.31, 0.43) | 5030 (for x = 0.33 and y = 0.21) | 74 (for x = 0.33 and y = 0.21) | 79.4 (at 350 mA) | polymerized silane prefunctionalized carbon dots (SiCDs) | white | SiCDs individually polymerized one-component system, drip-coated and bulk polymerized on GaN LEDs | [162] | |
citric acid, AEAPMS, nitrogen | pyrolysis | 39 | 460 | broad band centered at 560 | (0.33, 0.36) | 5653 | 78.2 | 43.75 | colloidal Au nanoparticles | white | gold-carbon dots (GCDs) with high luminescence | [138] | |
ammonium citrate, EDTA; solvent: DMF | solvothermal syn-thesis | 67 | 460 | from 450 to 600 | (0.32, 0.33) (white) | 6565 (white) | 68.4 (white) | 32.26 (white) | Polyamideresin-650 (P-650) | red, orange, yellow, white, cyan, blue, and dark blue | white and multicolor N-doped CDs; color depends on molar ratio between the precursors | [109] | |
ammonium citrate (in DMF), ethyl alcohol or ammonium citrate (in DMF), AEAPMS | solvothermal syn-thesis | 51 | 395 | ~560 | (0.33, 0.34) | 6735 | 51 | 25.63 | glass matrix | white | white CD-based glass thin films fabricated by screen printing technology | [160] | |
glucose, ammonia | hydrothermal synthesis | 10.2 | ~395 | ~590 | (0.28, 0.37) | NR | NR | NR | PVA | white | synthesis of nitrogen-doped carbon dots (NCDs) and carbon sheets (NCSs); PVA used to prevent AIQ | [93] | |
hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide | 38.7 | ~385 | two broad bands at 495 and 660 | 3623–8121 | PVP | white | modulation of the emitting states of colloidal CDs | [163] | |||||
2018 | p-PD, ethanol, N-(3-(trimethoxysilyl) propyl) ethylenediamine (KH-792) | solvothermal syn-thesis | 41.72 | 400 | 480–720 | (0.44, 0.42) | 2951 | NR | NR | silica | warm white | embedding of CDs into a silica matrix overcomes the AIQ | [94] |
phenol derivative, EDA | hydrothermal method | 24.4 in water; 53.3 in ethanol | 360 | broad band | (0.3316, 0.3373) | 5538 | 93.3 | NR | transparent epoxy JH-6800MA and JH-6800MB | yellow–green, white | WLEDs fabricated by mixing yellow–green N-doped CDs, blue CDs, and red emission (Sr, Ca) AlSiN3:Eu powders | [164] | |
pyrogallic acid, DMF | solvothermal syn-thesis | 8 (in KH-792); 16.82 (in DMF solution) | 365 | 560 | (0.38, 0.48) (at 3.5 V) | 4503 (at 3.5 V) | NR | NR | KH-792 | white | green CD emission due to large conjugated sp2-domain promoted by DMF; high-stability | [165] | |
amino silane (red CDs), N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (green CDs) | alkali-induced method | 80 (red); 49 (green) | 90.2 | 68.58 | trichromatic warm white | optical properties of red-emitting CDs modulated by the alkali-induced surface electronic states; mix of red- and green-emitting CDs | [166] | ||||||
p-PD; solvent: isopropanol | solvothermal synthesis | 20.6 | 450 | broad band (peak at 580–600) | (0.335, 0.319) 0.5 nm-thick; (0.348, 0.324) 1.0 nm-thick; (0.371, 0.341) 1.5 nm-thick | 5359 (0.5 nm) 4772 (1.0 nm) 3994 (1.5 nm) | 81 (0.5 nm) 84 (1.0 nm) 85 (1.5 nm) | NR | PVA | white | combination of red CD solid film and yellow Ce:YAG PiG (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 nm film thickness) | [167] | |
citric acid, urea; solvents: water, DMF, ethanol, NaOH | hydrothermal method | 34 (blue); 19 (green); 47 (red) | 365 | 442 (blue); 545 (green); 620 (red) | (0.38, 0.34) | 3913 | 91 | 10.2 | PVA | warm white | tunable emissions from blue, green, and red CDs (by changing the reaction solvent) | [95] | |
Substituted derivatives from perylene (3,4,9,10-nitroperylene) (refluxed with HNO3) | solvothermal treatment in an alkaline solution | 81 (green); 80 (red) | 460 | 508 615 | 92.9 | 71.75 | methyltriethoxysilane (MTES) and APTES | trichromatic white | photoluminescent CDs with green and red emission switching using perylene as the precursor | [168] | |||
1,2,4-triaminobenzene, polyethylene glycol 200 (PEG 200); solvents: ethyl acetate, ethanediamine, oleylamine, DMSO | solvothermal method | from 10.8 to 25 | 460 | from 473 to 624 | (0.4557, 0.3840) (YAG/red CDs: 0.50) | 2514 (YAG/red CDs: 0.50) | 89.6 (YAG/red CDs: 0.50) | NR | silica | warm white (red CDs mixed with Ce3+:YAG) | CDs can be well-tuned from 473 to 624 nm in different solvents | [108] | |
potato starch, EDS | microwave-assisted hydrothermal method | 2.46 (only starch; non-doped CDs); 5.71 (starch + EDS; N-doped CDs) | 375 | 560 (non-doped CDs); 430, 560 (N-doped CDs) | (0.38, 0.45) non-doped CDs; (0.33, 0.35) N-doped CDs | 4329 (non-doped CDs); 5437 (N-doped CDs) | NR | NR | starch | white | potato starch is used as a carbon source for CD and as an encapsulant | [147] | |
citric acid, 5-amino-1,10- phenanthroline (Aphen) | one-pot hydrothermal method | 67 (red); 29 (white) | 400 | triple emission bands: 430 (blue), 500 (green), 630 (red) | (0.33, 0.33) | NR | 92 | 30.5 | poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) | pure white | multicolor emissive CDs with multiple core@shell structure | [111] | |
citric acid, urea | hydrothermal method | 53.82 (blue CDs); 36.18 (green CDs); 12.73 (red CDs) | 365 | 445 (blue CDs); 510 (green CDs); 600 (red CDs); from 400 to 800 (white) | (0.33, 0.32) | 5237 | 83 | NR | transparent wood (lignin removed by oxalic acid and choline chloride), PAA | trichromatic pure white | green preparation of transparent wood as encapsulant; stability tested for 7 days | [149] | |
p-PD, 3-isocyanatopropyltriethoxysilane (IPTS) | pyrolysis | NR | 460 | 570 (dichromatic LED); 500, 605 (trichromatic LED); @50 mA | (0.397, 0.428) (dichromatic LED); (0.385, 0.345) (trichromatic LED); @50 mA | 3949 (dichromatic LED); 4494 (trichromatic LED); @50 mA | 70 (dichromatic LED); 85 (trichromatic LED); @50 mA | 15.88 (dichromatic LED); 22.00 (trichromatic LED); @50 mA | PMMA (dichromatic LED); APTES-gel (trichromatic LED) | dichromatic and trichromatic white | a novel approach to achieve up/down-conversion photoluminescence of CDs based on polarity dependence | [112] | |
o-phenylenediamine (o-PD); solvent: water | hydrothermal method | 25–35 | InGaN blue LED (λ NR) | broad band | (0.353,0.371) @100–150 mA | ~5400 @100–150 mA | ~78 @100–150 mA | ~45 @100–150 mA | PVA, silica gel | white | yellow-emitting N-doped CDs | [169] | |
citric acid, urea | microwave-assisted heating method | 25 (red CDs); 36 (green CDs) | 450 | broad band (peaks at 532, 630) | (0.33, 0.33) | 5610 | 92 | 12 | PVP (for red CDs); starch (for green CDs) | pure white | enhanced red emissive CDs-based phosphors with high QY | [113] | |
citric acid, piperazine; (different mass ratio: 1:0.5, 1:1, 1:2 w/w) | microwave-assisted heating method | NR | 395 | broad band centered at ~560 | (0.25, 0.28); mass ratio: 1:1 w/w | 13601 | NR | NR | silicone | bluish white | the mass ratio of the precursors not only has a great influence on the CD sizes, but can also affect their luminescence properties | [114] | |
o-PD, urea | one-pot microwave-assisted hydrothermal method | 4.23 | 420 | 440–700 (peak: 563) | (0.30, 0.30) | 7915 | NR | NR | PVA | white | rapid synthesis of yellow fluorescent CDs | [170] | |
starch, EDA | one-step hydrothermal method | 9.65 | 365 | two peaks at 420 and 555 | (0.33, 0.37) | 5462 | NR | NR | starch, PVA | white | starch used as a carbon source for CDs | [148] | |
phenylenediamine isomers (o-PD, m-PD, p-PD) formamide solution | microwave heating | in ethanol: 14 m-CDs; 45 o-CDs; 8 p-CDs; in water: 11 m-CDs; 38 o-CDs; 6 p-CDs | 390 (m-CDs); 450 (o-CDs, or p-CDs) | 470 m-CDs; 550 o-CDs; 600 p-CDs | (0.2678, 0.2945) m-CDs; (0.3613, 0.3851) o-CDs; (0.2423, 0.1283) p-CDs | 10,967 m-CDs; 4589 o-CDs; 3247 p-CDs | 83 m-CDs; 87 o-CDs; 81 p-CDs | 18.3 m-CDs; 21.0 o-CDs; 17.7 p-CDs | starch, silicone | cool, neutral, and warm white | phenylenediamine isomers (oPD, mPD, and pPD) used as precursors for producing multicolor emissive CDs | [115] | |
pyromellitic acid (PA), diethylenetriamine (DETA) and thiourea. | one-pot solvothermal method | 16.7 | InGaN blue LED (λ NR) | 611 | (0.57, 0.42) (orange LED) | 1745 (orange LED) | 56 (orange LED) | NR | PMMA chloroform solution | orange, white | solvothermal route for the synthesis of nitrogen and sulfur co-doped CDs; orange emissive CDs | [116] | |
2019 | p-PD, amino acetic acid, ethanol, EDA | solvothermal method | 24.7 (red CDs) | 360 | broad band (peaks at 400, 465, 600) | (0.33, 0.33) | 5612 | 89 | NR | PVP | pure white | synthesis of blue-, green-, and red-emitting CDs with high dispersity both in aqueous and organic solvent; WLED obtained by mixing the three types of CDs | [171] |
o-PD, starch | one-step hydrothermal method | 66.9 | 455 | broad band centered at around 600 | (0.3429, 0.2817) | 4613 | 83 | 30.54 | silicone | daylight white | highly efficient solid-state yellow-emitting CDs phosphors | [127] | |
diammonium hydrogen citrate, urea | pyrolysis | NR | 450 | broad band | (0.31, 0.36) (composite fibers); (0.33, 0.34) (mix red phosphor and CDs) | 6000 (composite fibers) | 90 (composite fibers) | 63.5 (mix red phosphor and CDs) | PVP | white | WLED fabricated by a commercial red phosphor (Sr2Si5N8:Eu2+) and N-doped CDS embedded in PVP; fabrication of electrospun composite fibers | [172] | |
citric acid, urea | one-step gaseous detonation method (within milliseconds) | 11.2 | 365 | broad band centered at 534 | (0.31, 0.42) | 6249 | NR | NR | water solution dripped on an optical lens and dried | white | rapid CD preparation by a one-step gaseous detonation approach | [63] | |
citric acid, urea; solvent: DMF | one-step solvothermal treatment | 5.3 (blue CD); 12.4 (green CD); 8.9 (yellow CD); 6.9 (orange-red) | 365 | 450 (blue); 550 (green); 575 (yellow); 610 (orange-red); 440, 540–590 flat band (white) | (0.18, 0.21) blue; (0.34, 0.54) green; (0.49, 0.46) yellow; (0.58, 0.38) orange-red; (0.32, 0.33) white | 4820 | 82.7 | NR | PVA | blue, green, yellow, orange–red, white | study of temperature on the evolution of CD surface states and on the emissive properties of CD-based LEDs | [117] | |
pyromellitic acid, pentaethylenehexamine (PEHA); (solvent: DMF; dopant: manganese chloride tetrahydrate) | solvothermal method | 28.5 (orange Mn-doped CDs); 83 (green CDs); 70 (blue CDs) | 365 | NR | (0.15, 0.19) blue; (0.25, 0.50) green; (0.55, 0.44) orange; (0.32, 0.31) white | 6216 | NR | NR | PVA | blue, green, orange, white | orange, green, and blue emissive CDs have synthesized; orange CDs doped with Mn to improve QY | [118] | |
citric acid, tri(hydroxymethyl) amino methane hydrochloride (Tris-HMA) | one-step pyrolysis | 15 (CD@PS); 23 (CD@PEGMA) | 365 | ~440 (only blue CD@PS) | (0.32, 0.31) (mix of blue CD@PS, green 8-quinolinol, red CdSe/ZnS QDs) | NR | NR | NR | styrene, azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) | white | CDs prepared via mussel-inspired chemistry; CDs decorated by catechol-terminated hydrophilic poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (PPEGMA) and hydrophobic polystyrene (PS) | [128] | |
KHP, NaN3, boric acid (BA); solvent: formaldehyde | one-step microwave-assisted pyrolysis | 67.8 | 365 | broad band centered at 432 | (0.17, 0.14) (15% mass ratio of D-CDs and resin) | >100,000 | 37 (15% mass ratio of D-CDs and resin) | 1.37 (15% mass ratio of D-CDs and resin) | epoxy silicone resin | bluish white | preparation of diamond-like carbon (sp3C) structure-doped carbon dots (D-CDs) powder for WLEDs | [173] | |
citric acid, branched poly(ethylenimine) (b-PEI; molecular weight: 2000) | one-step hydrothermal method | 26 | 450 | 565 (WLED); 590 (yellow LED) | (0.34, 0.34) white; (0.56, 0.43) yellow | 4850 (white); 1849 (yellow) | 70.5 (white) | 8.9 (white) | NR | yellow, white | 4 ns of CD luminescence lifetime enabling the fabrication of WLEDs and high-performance visible light communication system | [96] | |
Tobias acid, o-PD; solvents: formamide (blue CDs), ethanol (yellow CDs), sulfuric acid (red CDs) | one-step solvothermal method | 50.8 (red); 25.4 (yellow); 65.1 (blue); 50 (white) | 365 | 410–460 flat band, 560 | (0.31, 0.32) | 6135 | NR | NR | hydrogel | white | multicolor tunable highly luminescent CDs; N, S-CDs with red dual emission | [174] | |
glucosamine, 3-[2-(2- aminoethylamino)ethylamino] propyl-trimethoxysilane (NQ-62); solvent: acetone | one-pot solvothermal treatment | 460 | broad band 380–780, centered at 600 | (0.269, 0.184) (CD concentration: 50 g/L); (0.340, 0.255) (CD concentration: 100 g/L); (0.355, 0.268) (CD concentration: 120 g/L); (0.427, 0.327) (CD concentration: 200 g/L); (0.547, 0.383) (CD concentration: 250 g/L) | 100,000 (CD concentration: 50 g/L); 4615 (CD concentration: 100 g/L); 3647 (CD concentration: 120 g/L); 2345 (CD concentration: 200 g/L); 1675 (CD concentration: 250 g/L) | 42.3 (CD concentration: 50 g/L); 67.5 (CD concentration: 100 g/L); 68.1 (CD concentration: 120 g/L); 78.0 (CD concentration: 200 g/L); 81.9 (CD concentration: 250 g/L) | NR | no | white | synthesis of organosilane-functionalized carbon quantum dots (Si-CDs) | [119] | ||
poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) | microwave-assisted hydrothermal carbonization | ~11.0 in water; 7.3 in acetonitrile; 8.1 in DMF; 7.3 in methanol; 1.4 in acetone; 1.3 in PVA | 350 | broad band | (0.303, 0.332) in PVA; (0.307, 0.354) in water | 7023 in PVA; 5999 in water | NR | NR | PVA | white | CDs prepared starting from hydrothermal carbonization of PDDA; WLEDs fabricated by CD dispersion in water solution or in PVA | [175] | |
citric acid, EDA | sonochemical synthesis | 9–11 | 365 | 450−850 | (0.334, 0.334) (optimized) | 4290–6606 | 88–94 | NR | lanthanoid metal–organic frameworks (Ln-MOFs) | white | fabrication of CDs/Ln-MOFs hybrids for WLEDs and as luminescent security inks | [90] | |
poly(methyl methacrylate-co-dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride) (PMMA-co-DMDAAC) | pyrolysis | NR | 360 | 450 | (0.1506, 0.0290) 1:5 molar ratios of DMDACC to MMA | NR | NR | 11.24 (1:5 DMDACC:MMA) | patterned PMMA-co-DMDAAC composite | blue | honeycomb-patterned films of different pore sizes as a matrix increases luminous efficiency | [98] | |
citric acid, urea; solvents: water, ethyl alcohol, DMF | hydrothermal method | NR | 365 | broad band (peaks located at 441, 536, and 622) | (0.3497, 0.3045) (white) | 4878 | 85.2 | NR | silica | blue, green, yellow, orange, red, white | multicolor emission CDs synthesized by varying the ratio of precursors, the solvents, the temperature, and reaction time | [121] | |
p-PD, ZnCl2 solvent: ethanol | one-step solvothermal method | 5.97 (pPD: ZnCl2 = 1:0—red); 6.24 (pPD: ZnCl2 = 1:0.1—purplish red); 6.92 (pPD: ZnCl2 = 1:0.5—purplish blue); 19.81 (pPD: ZnCl2 = 1:1—blue) | 365 | 400–670 (two peaks located at 440, and 580) | (0.3301, 0.3367) | 5606 | 89 | NR | PVP | white | facile preparation of single metal-doped CDs with color-tunable properties | [120] | |
phthalic acid and piperazine | microwave-assisted method | 20.5 (in solid-state form and in aqueous solution) | 450 | 520 | (0.25, 0.32) CDs only; (0.33, 0.33) CDs + (Sr, Ca)AlSiN3:Eu | 11,229 CDs only; 5618 CDs + (Sr, Ca)AlSiN3:Eu | 62.5 CDs only; 88 CDs + (Sr, Ca)AlSiN3:Eu | 87.7 CDs only; 64.4 CDs + (Sr, Ca)AlSiN3:Eu | silicone | bluish-white, pure white | fluorescent CDs in solid state form (using phthalic acid and piperazine as precursors) | [176] | |
o-PD, dopamine | hydrothermal method | 33.96 | 365 | 560–780 centered at 745 (red emission); broad band with three peaks at 400, 490, 600, 740 (multicolor white emission) | (0.68, 0.31) (red emission); (0.34, 0.37) (white emission) | 1000 (red emission); 4957 (white emission) | 71.8 (red emission); 81.9 (white emission) | NR | PMMA | red, white | preparation of red-emitting CDs, quenching in the presence of Fe3+; the CDs can be used as Fe3+ detectors in living cells | [177] | |
citric acid, urea; solvent: DMF | pyrolysis | 25.0 | 380 | 450−750 | (0.35, 0.36) at 20 °C; (0.32, 0.23) at 80 °C | 4075 | 93.2 | 14.8 | polystyrene (PS) | warm and cool white | combination of blue and orange emissive CDs for WLEDs; temperature-dependent emission performance (emission spectrum turns from white (400−730 nm) at 20 °C to blue (∼440 nm) at 80 °C | [178] | |
aluminum glycine (Al-Gly) | one-step decomposition route | 15.6 λexc: 400; 14.5 λexc: 450 | 400, or 450, or 465 | broad band with peak between 560 and 580 | (0.3466, 0.3493) λexc: 400; (0.3484, 0.3578 λexc: 450; (0.3553, 0.3547) λexc: 465 | 4935 λexc: 400; 4898 λexc: 450; 4637 λexc: 465 | 66.9 λexc: 400; 79.3 λexc: 450; 80.6 λexc: 465 | 1.0 λexc: 400; 6.9 λexc: 450; 10.4 λexc: 465 | AlOOH | white | preparation of CD-doped boehmite composite (CDs@AlOOH) alleviates the self-quenching effect | [179] | |
urea | pyrolysis | 25 (fluorescence); 6 (phosphorescence) | 380 | 380–780 (peaks at 450, 570) | (0.35, 0.39) | 4935 | 85 | NR | cyanoacrylate (Super Glue) | white | blue–yellow fluorescence; phosphorescence dual emission | [180] | |
resorcinol | solvothermal treatment | 72 (pure red); 75 (pure green) | 450 (FWHM: 18) | 522 (FWHM: 32); 615 (FWHM: 33) | (0.35, 0.33) at 20 mA | NR | 56.9 (at 20 mA) | 86.5 (at 20 mA) | PMMA | pure red, pure green, white | wide color gamut CD-based LEDs for backlight displays (color gamut: 110% NTSC); high color purity narrow bandwidth emission (30 nm) triangular CDs | [12] | |
citric acid, urea | microwave-assisted heating method | 11 | 450 | broad band (peak centered between 540 and 570) | (0.22, 0.23) volume ratio CDs@MMT: epoxy = 4:3; (0.36, 0.38) volume ratio CDs@MMT: epoxy = 5:3; (0.46, 0.49) volume ratio CDs@MMT: epoxy = 8:3 | 53131 volume ratio CDs@MMT: epoxy = 4:3; 4598 volume ratio CDs@MMT: epoxy = 5:3; 3232 volume ratio CDs@MMT: epoxy = 8:3 | NR | NR | montmorillonite (MMT) clays, epoxy-silicone resin | bluish-white, yellowish | preparation of green emissive CDs@montmorillonite (CDs@MMT) composites | [181] | |
citric acid, L-cysteine (CYS), KCl | one-pot microwave heating method | 65 | 460 | broad band (peak at 550) | (0.29, 0.38) 63.6% CD concentration; (0.32, 0.42) 70% CD concentration | NR | NR | 97.8 (63.6% CD concentration); 93.9 (70% CD concentration) | PDMS | from cool to warm white | enhancement of yellow CDs fluorescence by AIE | [101] | |
3,5-diaminobenzoic acid (DABA); 3,4-DABA; phosphoric acid—not blue CDs | one-pot solvothermal method | B-CDs, G-CDs and 29.2 (blue); 69.2 (green); 24.8 (red) | 365 | 400–700 | (0.2963, 0.3225), | 7452 | NR | NR | transparent silicone resin | cool white | preparation of high-emitting RGB-CDs with excitation-independent; fabrication of WLEDs by multicolor RGB-CDs | [182] | |
citric acid, various hydroxyl-containing amino compounds | microwave-assisted heating method | from 56.9 to 87.0 | 405 | 472, 503, 527, 578, 629, 698 | (0.332, 0.335) neutral WLED; (0.430, 0.405) warm WLED | 5475.4 neutral WLED; 3058.7 warm WLED | 96.6 neutral WLED; 96.4 warm WLED | 46.8 neutral WLED; 41.2 warm WLED | epoxy resin | multicolor; warm and neutral white | preparation of tunable fluorescent CDs over the whole visible region; warm and neutral WLEDs are produced by coating cyan- and red-emitting CD layers on 405 nm LED chips | [13] | |
expanded polystyrene (WEPS), dichloromethane (DCE), HNO3 | one-step solvothermal method | 5.2 (white solid-state CDs); 3.4 (yellow solid-state CDs); 3.1 (orange solid-state CDs) | 365 | broad band (peaks at 440, 550, 730) | (0.34, 0.39) white | 5199 (white) | 80.0 (white) | NR | PDMS | yellow, orange, red, warm-white, | preparation of CDs based on WEPS as the precursor to fabricate LEDs | [79] | |
2020 | 2,7- dihydroxynaphthalene (C10H6(OH)2); N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF, C3H7NO); solvent: ethanol | solvothermal method | 26.03 | 360 | 480–680 | (0.41, 0.39) | 3330 | 91 | NR | silane coupling agent (KH-792) | warm white | preparation of wide-spectrum orange-emitting CDs; KH-792 suppresses quenching | [97] |
citric acid, EDA | pyrolysis | 56.6 (CDs/ PVP); 79.2 Ag/CDs/PVP | 380 | 435 | (0.156, 0.110) | NR | NR | 39.2 | PVP, PMMA photonic crystal; AgNO3 (for “islands” Ag film) | blue | blue CDs embedded in PVP and coupled with “island” Ag film result in a fluorescence enhancement | [139] | |
citric acid, safranine T (ST) | one-step hydrothermal methodology | 15.2 (liquid); 39.9 (solid) | 365 | 599 (red); ~450, ~510, ~590, | (0.62, 0.36) red CDs; (0.33, 0.34) white CDs (with BMA:Eu2+ and BaSrSi:Eu2+) | 5347 (white) | 81 (white) | 19.11 (white) | hardener (not specified) | red, white | red emissive host−guest CDs using citric acid (precursor and host) and ST (guest) as precursors; vitamin B12 quenches the fluorescence of CDs | [183] | |
o-PD, NH3 | hydrothermal method | NR | 395 | broad band with two peaks: 448 (zinc borate), 553 (CDs) | from (0.2366, 0.2550) to (0.4563, 0.5089) | NR | NR | NR | zinc borate matrix | blue, yellow, white | preparation of zinc borate/yellow N-doped CDs composite for WLEDs | [99] | |
caramelized sugar (sucrose), | microwave-assisted heating method | ~5 | 460 (blue LED), 520 (green LED) | broad yellow emission at 582 (blue exc.); broad red emission at ~630 (green exc.) | (0.31, 0.32) blue exc.; (0.4, 054) green exc. | NR | NR | NR | caramelized sugar | white, yellow | caramelized sugar CDs for color conversion applications | [150] | |
L-tyrosine (for blue CDs), o-PD (for green CDs), L-tyrosine/o-PD mixture (for orange-red CDs) | hydrothermal method | 8.6 (blue CDs); 12.6 (green CDs); 20.9 (orange-red CDs) | 370 | 450 (blue); 545 (green); 580 (orange); 380−750 (white) | (0.23, 0.26) blue LED; (0.34, 0.43) green LED; (0.41, 0.42) orange LED; (0.30, 0.33) white LED | 6293 (white) | 83 (white) | NR | PVA | blue, green, orange, cool white | tunable emission colors in CDs by changing the molar ratio of suitable carbon sources | [146] | |
1,2,4-triaminobenzene dihydrochloride, urea; (solvents: water, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran (THF), ethyl acetate (EtOAc), acetone) | solvothermal method | 42 (blue CDs—acetone); 70 (green CDs—EtOAc); 79 (yellow CDs—THF); 64 (orange CDs—ethanol); 55 (red CDs—water) | UV (λ NR) | NR | (0.33, 0.45) white LED | 5440 (white LED) | NR | NR | PVA | green, yellow, orange, white | multicolor emissive CDs based on solvent-controlled and solvent-responsive approaches | [122] | |
ammonium citrate tribasic, formamide, glycerol, ethylene glycol | microwave-assisted method (at atmospheric pressure) | 37.4 | 365 | broad band (Ce:YAG/CDs @MPS) | (0.344, 0.333) (Ce:YAG/CDs@MPS) | 4962 (Ce: YAG/CDs @MPS) | 90.9 (Ce: YAG/ CDs @MPS) | 67.5 (Ce: YAG/ CDs@ MPS) | mesoporous silica (MPS), epoxy AB glue | warm white | synthesis of red CDs; glycerol and formamide promote the carbonization precursor and enhance the crystallinity | [184] | |
citric acid, EDA | electrostatic adsorption between positively charged QDs and negatively charged CDs | 35 | 365 | 450–700 | (0.32, 0.33) cool white; (0.37, 0.39) warm white | 6338 (cool white); 4248 (warm white) | 91 (warm white) | 16.8 (warm white) | PMMA | cool and warm white | WLED prepared by core–shell structure nanocomposites based on Ag-In-S /ZnS@SiO2 QDs (AIS@SiO2) and CDs | [185] | |
citric acid, urea; (solvent: water) | microwave-assisted heating method | 62 | 450 | broad band (peak at 540) | (0.29, 0.33) | 7557 | NR | 42 | epoxy silicone resin | cool white | a composite phosphor (CDs@g-C3N4) comprising carbon dots (CDs) and graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) is prepared in water on a large scale | [186] | |
maleic acid, m-phenylenediamine (m-PD) | room-temperature synthesis | 42 (blue CDs); 35 (green CDs) | 365 | 460 (blue LED); 520 (green LED) | (0.1993, 0.2423) blue LED; (0.3199, 0.5027) green LED; (at 80 mA) | NR | NR | 16.6 (blue LED); 17.1 (green LED); (at 80 mA) | ethanol dropped on an optical lens | blue, green | no external energy or irradiations, reactants or high temperature are required to prepare CDs | [187] | |
phosphoric acid, urea | one-step process involving polymerization, deamination, and dehydration reactions | ~41 (white fluorescence) 23 (green phosphorescence) | 370 | 380–580 | (0.268, 0.346) | 8756 | 85.3 | 18.7 (at 20 mA) | silicone | cool white | carbonized polymer dots (CPDs) white light with dual components consisting of simultaneous fluorescence (S1→S0) and phosphorescence (T1→S0) | [125] | |
citric acid; 1-(2-pyridylazo)-2-naphthol (PAN); solvents: DMSO, DMF, ethanol, (THF), dichloromethane (DCM) | one-step solvothermal method | 46.5 (purple CDs); 32.3 (blue CDs); 31.6 (red CDs) | 365 | 375, 455, 570 | (0.29, 0.31) in epoxy resin | NR | NR | NR | epoxy resin; PMMA | purple, blue, red, white | multicolor emission CDs synthesized by one-step solvothermal treatment using citric acid and PAN with concentration-tunable fluorescence and solvent-affected aggregation states | [188] | |
citric acid, nitric acid, 1-octadecene, oleylamine (OLA), methanol, nitrogen | microemulsion process | NR | 360 | 450, 500, 590, 690 (D65) | (0.35, 0.37) D50; (0.32, 0.33) D65 | 6354 (D65; at 120 mA) | 95.3 (max) | 17.68 (D65; at 20 mA); 7.93 (D65; at 120 mA) | PMMA/toluene solution | D50, D65 white | synthesis of a sun-like light source (D50, D65) with tri-chromatic broad spectra (435-nm CDs), 695-nm perovskite QDs, and dual peak 510- and 590-nm Ag-doped InP QDs | [189] | |
citric acid, EDA (blue CDs); citric acid, urea (green CDs) | pyrolysis (blue CDs); microwave-assisted heating method (green CDs) | >60 (blue, green) | 390 | 450–700 | (0.3514, 0.3715) CD@SiO2 + red CdTe@CaCO3 | 4850 (CD@ SiO2 + red CdTe@ CaCO3) | 89.1 (CD@SiO2 + red CdTe@ CaCO3) | NR | spherical SiO2 matrix, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) | blue, green, red (CdTe@ CaCO3), white | blue/green-emitting N-doped carbon dots embedded into silica nanospheres (CD@SiO2) with spherical morphology | [190] | |
2021 | potassium bisulfate, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid; m-PD | solvothermal method | NR | 365 (for green and yellow LEDs); 460 (for white LEDs) | 500 (green); 550 (yellow); 560 (white) | (0.29, 0.49) green; (0.39, 0.49) yellow; (0.26, 0.27) white | NR | NR | NR | PVA | green, yellow, white | acid catalyst induces a fluorescence red shift and improved the QY of green emissive CDs. | [191] |
citric acid, EDA | hydrothermal method | 4.57 (blue CDs only) 40.1 (CS composites) | 365 | 445 | (0.15, 0.13) at 35 mA | NR | 79.1 | NR | silicone | deep blue | synthesis of CD-silica (SiO2) spheres composites (CS composites) with 10-fold fluorescence enhancement | [141] | |
1,4-diaminonaphthalene (solvents: octane, toluene, ethanol, acetone, DMF) | solvothermal method | 26.4 (in octane); 17.9 (in acetone); 13.9 (in toluene); 12.1 (in ethanol); 7.5 (in DMF) | 365 | 427–679 (peak at 618) | (0.4175, 0.2936) | NR | NR | NR | epoxy resin | red | preparation of red CDs using different solvents for carbonization; CDs prepared in octane have the high QY and fluorescence intensity | [192] | |
citric acid, urea (solvent: DMF) | solvothermal method | 22.7 (exc. 340); 28.1 (exc. 360); 24.0 (exc. 380); 23.8 (exc. 400); 15.6 (exc. 420); 14.2 (exc. 440); 10.0 (exc. 460); 9.8 (exc. 480) | 460 | broad band (up to 600) centered at 540 (CDs only); two large peaks at 470 and 535 (CDs + Ce:YAG) | (0.33, 0,45) CDs + Ce:YAG (CCT: 5602) | 5602–9242 | NR | NR | PVA (MW: 1500) | cool and warm white | WLEDs fabricated with an adjustable CCT by combining Ce:YAG and green-emitting CD films | [193] | |
dehydroabietic acid, ethanolamine | one-pot hydrothermal reaction | 10 | 450 | 500–675 | (0.3304, 0.3055) | 5608 | 88.6. | NR | epoxy resin | white | steric hindrance is exploited to prepare biomass-based solid-state emissive CDs with high yield | [151] | |
1,6-dihydroxynaphthalene (1,6-DHN); L-asparagine (L-Asn) | solvent-free carbonization method | NR | 365 | 451, 518 | (0.32, 0.31) | NR | NR | NR | polyvinyl butyral (PVB) | pure white | white light-emitting CDs prepared through a solvent-free method | [194] | |
polyethyleneimine (PEI), phosphoric acid, ethanol | solvothermal method | 4.4 (in aqueous solution or in powder form) | 365 | broad band | (0.33, 0.33) | 3319.6 | 76.3 | NR | AB glue | pure white | novel kind of self-quenching-resistant N,P-doped CDs; blue-emitting in solid state form and mixed with a red emitting Eu-MOF powder (CD@Eu-MOF) | [195] | |
o-PD, ammonia water (NH3·H2O, 25 wt%), | hydrothermal synthesis method | NR | 365 | broad band | from (0.2798, 0.2916) to (0.3246, 0.3305) (ZBH:9%Tm3+/yNCDs) | NR | NR | NR | ZBH:9% Tm3+ | white | incorporation of yellow N-doped CDs in a Tm3+-doped zinc borate (4ZnO·B2O3· H2O, ZBH) with a flake-like morphology | [196] | |
Pithecellobium dulce leaves (solvent: DMF) | muffle furnace carbonization method | NR | 365 | 530 | (0.32, 0.43) PVDF/CDs film dried at room temperature (white); (0.33, 0.42) PVDF/CDs film dried at 65 °C (greenish-white) | 5863 (white); 5576 (greenish-white) | NR | NR | polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) | white, greenish white | films doped with plant derived photoluminescent CDs | [197] | |
EDA, trimethylolpropane tri(cyclic carbonate)ether (TPTE) (synthesized from the reaction of CO2 and trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether in ethanol) | solvothermal treatment | 46.2 (in solution) 11.3 (as a solid) | 365 (orange); 420 (white, yellow); 460 (red) | 620 (orange); 605 (yellow); 675 (red); ~610 (white) | (0.582, 0.413) orange; 0.549, 0.443) yellow; (0.545, 0.309) red; (0.376, 0.288) white | 3161 (white) | 85 (white) | NR | concentrated CPDs optical lens (no encapsulant) | orange, yellow, red, warm white | new type of carbon dioxide (CO2) derived CPD; SSF due to the self-passivation of poly(hydroxyurethane) chains on the surface of the carbon core | [198] | |
citric acid, urea | microwave-assisted heating method (700 W, 5 min) | 5.78 | 460 | broad band | (0.42, 0.51) | NR | NR | NR | zeolitic imidazolate framework 8 (ZIF-8), epoxy resin | white | green-emitting CDs and red-emitting rhodamine B (RhB) molecules, encapsulated into porous ZIF-8 to obtain a yellow-emitting composite phosphor | [199] | |
avocado peel (CPDs-P); sarcocarp (CPDs-S) | hydrothermal method | 9.56 (CPDs-P); 8.97 (CPDs-S) | 365 | broad band centered at 600 (warm white); broad band centered at 485 (cool white) | (0.38, 0.39) warm white; (0.29, 0.34) cool white | 4088 (cool white) | 90.47 (warm white); 84.54 (cool white) | NR | epoxy resin | warm and cool white | blue-emitting CPDs-P (peel) and blue–green-emitting CPDs-S (sarcocarp) prepared using the peel and sarcocarp of avocado, respectively | [152] | |
2-aminoterephthalic acid (ATA), polyethylene glycol, orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4). | microwave-assisted pyrolysis | 67 | 365 | broad band centered at 578 | (0.35, 0.33) | 5246 | 92 | NR | PVA | pure white | synthesis of multifunctional CDs for WLEDs, ultrasensitive to the nitroaromatic explosive picric acid | [200] | |
citric acid, octadecene, hexadecyl amine (HDA) (solvent: chloroform) | open-air atmosphere carbonization synthesis | 5–13 (in colloidal state); 16 (in solid state) | 350 | 360–700 (peak: 430, FWHM: ~154) | (0.31, 0.33) | 6412 | ~ 96 | NR | PDMS | pure white | ecofriendly open-air atmosphere synthesis of highly luminescent CPDs for high CRI WLEDs | [129] | |
ammonium citrate (red CDs); AEAPMS (+red CDs) (white CDs); solvent: DMF | pyrolysis | NR | 395 | broad band (peaks: 540, 645) | (0.357, 0.359) | 4271 | 89 | 1.3 | cellulose acetate | white | novel solvent engineering by controlling the dilution ratios between the solvent (DMF) and pristine red CDs solution | [201] | |
citric acid; 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (cyclen) | microwave-assisted synthesis method | 48 | 450 | 545 (CDs only); 545, 595 (CDs + (Sr, Ca) AlSiN3: Eu) | (0.30, 0.34) (CDs only); (0.33, 0.32) (CDs + (Sr, Ca) AlSiN3:Eu) | 7001 (CDs only); 5557 (CDs + (Sr, Ca) AlSiN3: Eu) | 57.7 (CDs only); 82.1 (CDs + (Sr, Ca) AlSiN3: Eu) | 25.5 (CDs only); 31.0 (CDs + (Sr, Ca) AlSiN3: Eu) | silicone | white | bright yellow fluorescence from cyclen-based CDs powder | [81] | |
citric acid, urea, oleic acid | microwave-assisted solvothermal reaction | 0.99 (CDs embedded in PVA) | 420 | broad band (peak: 510–530) | (0.39, 0.46) | 4105 | NR | NR | PVA | white | PVA polymer encapsulated with N-doped CDs sustaining the emission in its solid state | [202] | |
spinach after soaking in ethanol/water (4:1 vol ratio) | one-step hydrothermal method | NR | 395 | 447, 677 | (0.185, 0.104) blue; (0.352, 0.339) white; (0.433, 0.375) orange | NR | 65–82 | 12.4–19.5 | Mg(OH)2 nanosheets, ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) | blue, white, orange | blue/red CDs@Mg(OH)2 anti-self-quenching luminescent composites for plant growth applications | [153] | |
maleic acid, APTES | one-step solvothermal method | 34.06 (green CDs); 38.07 (yellow CDs); 20.3 (orange CDs) | 365 | 475 (blue LED); 460, 510 (yellow LED); 560 (orange LED) | (0.22, 0.41) green LED; (0.38, 0.47) yellow LED; (0.50, 0.43) orange LED | 9885 (blue LED); 6772 (yellow LED); 2379 (orange LED) | 70.2 (blue LED); 72.6 (yellow LED); 74.5 (orange LED) | NR | epoxy resin | blue, yellow, orange | SSF Si-doped CDs prepared using maleic acid and APTES as precursors | [203] | |
citric acid, thiourea, ammonium fluoride (solvent: DMF) | solvothermal method | 22.64 | 525 (for red LEDs); UV (λ NR) (for white LEDs) | 695 (red LEDs); 425, 530, 650 (white LEDs) | (0.72, 0.28) red LEDs; (0.36, 0.36) white LEDs | 1000 (red LEDs); 4705 (white LEDs) | 57.7 (red LEDs); 93.8 (white LEDs) | NR | epoxy resin | red, white | preparation of highly stable near-IR CDs (emission at 714 nm) using citric acid as the carbon source, thiourea and ammonium fluoride as the dopant source | [123] | |
2-amino-1-naphthol, EDA (solvent: ethanol) | one-pot hydrothermal method | NR | 452 | 550 (yellow–green CDs), 628 (red Cd2+-based QDs) | (0.3669, 0.3671) | 4329 | 95.1 | NR | BaSO4, silica gel | white | improvement of yellow–green CDs by encapsulation in BaSO4 | [204] | |
cis-butenedioic acid (C-BA), urea | one-step solvothermal method | 35.12 | 460 | broad band centered at 580 | (0.3341, 0.3075) | 5388 | 86.9 | 15.12 | Ca(OH)2, transparent silicone (YD65-5A), anhydride curing agent (YD65-5B) | pure white | multicolor CDs obtained from cis-butenedioic acid (C-BA) and urea; solid-state luminescent CD obtained by adding alkaline Ca(OH)2 | [205] | |
citric acid, EDA, Ln(NO3)3∙6H2O | solvothermal and hydrothermal methods | NR | 275 | narrow bands: ~420, ~475, ~530, ~580, ~610, ~680 | (0.337.0.339) neutral white | 5319 (neutral white) | 93 (neutral white) | 322 (warm white) | NR | cool, neutral, warm white | rare-earth single-atom-based NaGdF4:Tb3+/ Eu3+@CDs:N/ Eu3+ composite with tunable full-color luminescence | [206] | |
citric acid; (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane; N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylenediamine (silanes molar ratio = 7:3) | one-step solvothermal method | ~20 | 365, 450 | 550 (exc. 365, yellow emission); 575 (exc. 450, white emission) | (0.41, 0.52) yellow; (0.33, 0.31) white | 5774 (white) | 81.6 (white) | NR | no encapsulation | yellow, white | double silane-functionalized carbon dots (DSi-CDs) with emission at longer wavelengths | [207] | |
citric acid, tris(hydroxymethyl)methyl aminomethane | microwave-mediated heating; liquid-liquid diffusion-assisted crystallization method | 92.7 (CDs only) | 380 | 430, 600 | (0.3580, 0.3611) | 4255 | 93.6 | 12.64 | NR | white | assembly of blue-emitting CDs and yellow-emitting Cs2InCl5·H2O: Sb3+ metal halide crystals for WLEDs (CDs@Cs2InCl5·H2O: Sb3+) | [208] | |
gallic acid, o-PD (solvents: methanol, ethanol, acetone, octane, toluene, THF, DMF) | solvothermal method | 10 (exc. 340, blue CDs); 11 (exc. 500, green CDs); 23 (exc. 500, red CDs) | purple (λ NR) | 425 (blue), 510 (green), 585 (red); broad band (white) | (0.16, 0.12) blue; (0.27, 0.45) green; (0.53, 0.38) red; (0.32, 0.34) white | NR | NR | NR | epoxy resin | blue, green, red, white | blue, green, and red CDs prepared using gallic acid as the raw material | [209] | |
tartaric acid, triammonium citrate | one-step solvothermal method | 43.6 (blue CDs); 41.2 (green CDs); 44.1 (red CDs) | 365 | 465, 530, 570 | (0.17, 0.15) blue; (0.31, 0.53) green; (0.58, 0.40) red; (0.34, 0.35) white | 5336 (white) | 83.1 (white) | NR | KH-792 silane coupling agent | multicolors, warm white | synthesis of multicolor fluorescent CDs with adjustable emission wavelength and high QY, using ecofriendly precursors | [210] | |
2,3-diaminopyridine (solvents: NaOH, pure water, HCl) | pH-controlled hydrothermal method | 8.4 (violet); 9.3 (green); 8.3 (orange) | 365 | ~400, ~540, ~600 | (0.22, 0.17) bluish; (0.30, 0.33) cool white; (0.41, 0.37) warm white | 7466 (cool white); 3265 (warm white) | 78 (cool white); 90 (warm white) | NR | starch, AB glue | bluish, cool white, warm white | single precursor to synthesize colorful CDs in different pH conditions | [211] | |
citric acid, urea | microwave-assisted pyrolysis | 15 (exc. 395); 14 (exc. 410) | 400 | ~500, ~610 | (0.321, 0.367) cool white; (0.390, 0.455) warm white | 5796 (cool white); 4228 (warm white) | 89 (cool white); 84 (warm white) | 13.2 | d-U(600) di-ureasil hybrid matrix | cool and warm white | assembly of a commercial LED and flexible films of a di-ureasil hybrid comprising a mixture of a cyan component originating from CDs and a red one resulting from the Eu(tta)3(bpyO2) complex | [212] | |
citric acid, urea, thiourea | microwave-assisted solvent-free synthesis method | NR | 410, 455 | 605 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | synthesis of graphitized N-doped and S,N-doped CDs | [213] | |
Star Jasmine leaves (Trachelospermum jasminoides) | solvothermal treatment | 54.8 (blue CDs); 15 (green CDs); 19.8 (red CDs) | NR | 466 (blue); 521 (green); 625 (red) | (0.15, 0.18) blue; (0.26, 0.60) green; (0.58, 0.31) red; (0.36, 0.32) white | 4283 (white) | NR | NR | polyurethane | blue, green, red, white | synthesis of RGB CDs with high optical tuning using sustainable green precursors | [214] | |
2022 | o-PD, phenylalanine | one-pot solvothermal method | 52.34 (blue CDs); 65.67 (green CDs); 12.87 (red CDs) | 365 | 400–750 (peaks: 400, 500) | (0.30, 0.35) | 7127 | 86 | NR | epoxy resin, tetraethylenepentamine | pure white | a RGB-multicolor CDs prepared by adjusting the type of reaction solvent | [215] |
EDA, nitrogen | hydrothermal method | NR | 395 | broad band (peaks: 450, 475, 580, 610, 700) | (0.18, 0.16) (KLM: Eu3+: CDs = 0:1, blue LED); (0.19, 0.21) (KLM: Eu3+: CDs = 1:2, cyan LED); (0.21, 0.22) (KLM: Eu3+: CDs = 1:1, cool white LED); (0.29, 0.25) (KLM: Eu3+: CDs = 2:1, neutral white LED); (0.38, 0.28) (KLM: Eu3+: CDs = 10:1, warm white LED); (0.56, 0.32) (KLM: Eu3+: CDs = 1:0, red LED); | NR | NR | NR | silica sol | blue, cyan, cool, neutral, and warm white, red | fabrication of polychromatic nanoplatform KLa(MoO4)2: Eu3+@CDs (KLM: Eu3+ @CDs) by encapsulating CDs on the surface of KLM: Eu3+ with silicon shell | [216] | |
citric acid, Nile blue A (NBA) | one-pot solvothermal method | 64 (blue CDs); 57 (yellow CDs); 51 (red CDs) | 395 | 475, ~550, 625 | (0.15, 0.21) blue LED; (0.43, 0.54) yellow LED; (0.46, 0.16) red LED; (0.31, 0.29) white LED | 5643 (white) | 87.2 (white) | NR | epoxy resin, curing agent EDA, | blue, yellow, red, white | synthesis of tunable multicolor emission CDs, covering the entire visible spectrum | [217] | |
ethanol, H2SO4 | one-step carbonization process | 14.88 (blue CDs); 4.85 (cyan CDs); 17.54 (yellow CDs) | UV (λ NR) | ~450, ~475, ~590, | (0.17, 0.21) blue LED; (0.24, 0.33) cyan LED; (0.50, 0.47) yellow LED; (0.37, 0.39) white LED | ~4500 | 87.8 (white) | NR | epoxy resin | blue, cyan, yellow, white | white light-emitting CDs using ethanol as the carbon source and H2SO4 as the carbonizing agent with three emission centers (blue, cyan, yellow) | [218] | |
phloroglucinol, urea | one-step microwave method | 48.2 (blue CDs); 26.0 (green CDs); 18.5 (yellow CDs); 13.7 (orange); 5.7 (red) | UV (λ NR) | ~450 (blue); ~520 (green) ~580 (yellow); ~600 (orange); ~670 (red); 430–650 (white) | (0.20, 0.18) blue LED; (0.31, 0.44) green LED; (0.48, 0.50) yellow LED; (0.52, 0.45) orange LED; (0.68, 0.31) red LED; (0.29, 0.31) cool white LED; (0.32, 0.36) pure white LED; (0.39, 0.40) warm white LED | 8588 (cool white LED); 6104 (pure white LED); 3937 (warm white LED) | 88 (cool white LED); 82 (pure white LED); 80 (warm white LED) | NR | optical sealant OE6250 A, and B on optical lens | blue, green, yellow, orange, red, cool, pure, and warm white | self-quenching-resistant solid-state fluorescent CDs displaying tunable full-color emission | [219] | |
2-amino-1-naphthol; EDA (solvent: ethanol) | pyrolysis | NR | 460 | ~545 ~625 | (0.332, 0.336) | 5498 | 93.9 | 32.19 (before ageing) | starch, epoxy resin | white | CD synthesized by adsorbing yellow–green CDs to starch particles and mixed with CdZnSeS/ZnS phosphor | [220] | |
Polyethylene glycol (Mw = 4000) (PEG-4K); 1,2-diaminobenzene | hydrothermal method | 62.5 | 455 | 400–700 (peak at 541) | (0.3003, 0.3731) | 5117 | 80.9 | 40.6 | mesoporous silica nanosphere-stellate (MSNS), silicone resin | pure white | CD@monodisperse mesoporous silica nanosphere-stellate (CD@MSNS) hybrid phosphor with highly concentrated emitting centers | [221] |
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Trapani, D.; Macaluso, R.; Crupi, I.; Mosca, M. Color Conversion Light-Emitting Diodes Based on Carbon Dots: A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 5450. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155450
Trapani D, Macaluso R, Crupi I, Mosca M. Color Conversion Light-Emitting Diodes Based on Carbon Dots: A Review. Materials. 2022; 15(15):5450. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155450
Chicago/Turabian StyleTrapani, Danilo, Roberto Macaluso, Isodiana Crupi, and Mauro Mosca. 2022. "Color Conversion Light-Emitting Diodes Based on Carbon Dots: A Review" Materials 15, no. 15: 5450. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155450