Application of Machine Learning Techniques for Predicting Compressive, Splitting Tensile, and Flexural Strengths of Concrete with Metakaolin
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data Collection
3. Methodology
3.1. Gene Expression Programming
3.2. Artificial Neural Network
3.3. M5P Model Tree Algorithm
3.4. Random Forest
4. Model Development and Evaluation Criteria
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Developed Models for Compressive Strength
5.1.1. GEP I Model
5.1.2. ANN I Model
5.1.3. RF I
5.1.4. Comparison of GEP I, ANN I, and RF I
5.2. Developed Models for Splitting Tensile Strength
5.2.1. GEP II
5.2.2. ANN II
5.2.3. M5P II
5.2.4. RF II
5.2.5. Comparison of GEP II, ANN II, M5P II, and RF II
5.3. Developed Models for Flexural Strength
5.3.1. GEP III
5.3.2. ANN III
5.3.3. M5P III
5.3.4. RF III
5.3.5. Comparison of GEP III, ANN III, M5P III, and RF III
6. Sensitivity and Parametric Analysis
7. Conclusions
- For modelling of concrete with MK, RF I (R2 = 0.99) showed excellent predictive capability followed by ANN I (R2 = 0.94) and GEP I (R2 = 0.81) for both training and testing sets. These results were also supported by other statistical metrics such as R, RMSE, RSE, MAE, DR, and .
- For the training set, in the case of the prediction, RF II performed better with R2 = 0.98 followed by ANN II (R2 = 0.92), M5P II (R2 = 0.88), and GEP II (R2 = 0.86). A slight change was observed in the order of ML techniques in the case of the testing set, where GEP II (R2 = 0.90) performed well as compared with M5P II (R2 = 0.86), while the order of RF II and ANN III was the same as observed for the training set.
- Similar to the prediction results of and database, RF III remained on top with respect to its excellent prediction performance as compared with other ML techniques for the FS database. The values of R2 equal to 0.98 and 0.98 were observed by RF III and ANN III for both training and testing sets. For the FS database, M5P III’s performance was relatively low as compared with other ML techniques and showed R2 = 0.73 and 0.76 for training and testing sets, respectively. GEP III showed better prediction potential as compared with M5P III with R2 = 0.88 and 0.86 for training and testing sets, respectively.
- PA analysis showed that 15% MK incorporation as partial cement replacement was suitable for both and , while this content was 10% for FS. In addition, significant strength development was observed at early ages with MK incorporation for all the mechanical properties.
8. Future Research
- In this study, four individual machine learning techniques were used for predicting the mechanical properties of concrete with MK. It would be beneficial to use the ensemble ML technique and compare it with individual ML techniques.
- More properties of concrete with MK such as rheology, elastic modulus, and durability characteristics need to be modelled by using advanced ML techniques.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Statistical Indicator | C (kg/m3) | MK (kg/m3) | w/b Ratio | FA (kg/m3) | CA (kg/m3) | SP (kg/m3) | Days | Strength (MPa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Database | ||||||||
Minimum | 176.25 | 0 | 0.21 | 272.5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
Maximum | 680 | 256 | 0.8 | 1502 | 1510 | 24 | 180 | 107 |
Mean | 384.77 | 44.35 | 0.447 | 765 | 991 | 3.6 | 36 | 48.86 |
Standard error | 2.8 | 1.15 | 0.004 | 5.95 | 8.88 | 0.125 | 1.4 | 0.73 |
Standard deviation | 87 | 36.26 | 0.124 | 186.3 | 278.33 | 3.91 | 44.54 | 22.85 |
Kurtosis | −0.13 | 3.59 | 0.45 | 3.29 | 2.3 | 7.44 | 3.83 | −0.435 |
Skewness | 0.03 | 1.1 | 0.73 | 1.14 | −1.3 | 2.16 | 2.07 | 0.48 |
Database | ||||||||
Minimum | 266 | 0 | 0.21 | 272.5 | 175.1 | 0 | 1 | 1.1 |
Maximum | 570 | 256 | 0.75 | 989 | 1265 | 12.4 | 120 | 5.88 |
Mean | 400 | 44.1 | 0.44 | 756 | 866 | 4.23 | 34.62 | 3.44 |
Standard error | 4.59 | 2.72 | 0.008 | 12.63 | 18.64 | 0.23 | 2.21 | 0.071 |
Standard deviation | 65.69 | 39 | 0.12 | 180.83 | 267 | 3.34 | 31.67 | 1.01 |
Kurtosis | −0.36 | 4.2 | −0.005 | −0.39 | 1.6 | −0.68 | 0.37 | −0.25 |
Skewness | 0.14 | 1.31 | 0.41 | −0.58 | −1.11 | 0.41 | 1.23 | 0.42 |
FS Database | ||||||||
Minimum | 304 | 0 | 0.28 | 624.8 | 822 | 0 | 7 | 4.5 |
Maximum | 570 | 100 | 0.48 | 843 | 1265 | 8.55 | 90 | 10.75 |
Mean | 399.5 | 44.22 | 0.415 | 716 | 1051 | 1.97 | 39.98 | 7.38 |
Standard error | 7.21 | 4.04 | 0.006 | 11.44 | 20.7 | 0.24 | 3.89 | 0.18 |
Standard deviation | 57.21 | 32.05 | 0.051 | 90.83 | 164.5 | 1.94 | 30.89 | 1.42 |
Kurtosis | 0.59 | −1.31 | 1.024 | −1.61 | −1.3 | 0.92 | −0.95 | 0.055 |
Skewness | 0.31 | 0.03 | −1.085 | 0.5 | −0.22 | 1.01 | 0.74 | 0.461 |
Parameters | GEP I | GEP II | GEP III |
---|---|---|---|
Genes | 4 | 5 | 3 |
Head size | 13 | 10 | 8 |
Chromosomes | 50 | 30 | 250 |
Function set | +, −, ∗, /, Sqrt, Exp, Ln, Inv, X2, X3, X4, X5, 4Rt, 5Rt, Sin, Cos, Tan, Sec, Cosh, Tanh, Coth, Sech | +, −, ∗, /, Sqrt, Exp, Ln, Log, Inv, 3Rt, Cos, Tan, Cot, Sec, Coth, Tanh, Sech | +, −, ∗, / |
Linking function | Multiplication | Addition | Addition |
Generation | 400,000 | 70,000 | 50,000 |
Fitness function error type | RMSE | RMSE | RMSE |
Mutation rate | 0.00138 | 0.00138 | 0.00138 |
No. of Chromosomes | Head Size | No. of Genes | Linking Function | Function Set | Output | R2 (Training Set) | R2 (Testing Set) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
30 | 10 | 4 | Addition | +, −, ∗, /, X2, 3Rt | of concrete with bagasse ash | 0.83 | 0.85 | [21] |
30 | 10 | 4 | Addition | +, −, ∗, / | of high strength concrete | 0.91 | 0.9 | [25] |
26 | 12 | 3 | Multiplication | +, −, ∗, /, Sqrt, X3 | of geopolymer concrete with blast-furnace slag | 0.92 | 0.94 | [91] |
20 | 4 | 2 | Multiplication | +, −, ∗, /, Sqrt | and w/b | 0.87 | 0.88 | [92] |
Model | Training Set | Testing Set | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | RMSE | RRMSE | RSE | R | RMSE | RRMSE | RSE | |||
GEP I | 0.9 | 9.3 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 9.43 | 0.2 | 0.19 | 0.12 |
ANN I | 0.97 | 5.49 | 0.12 | 0.063 | 0.061 | 0.97 | 5.18 | 0.1 | 0.063 | 0.051 |
RF I | 0.997 | 2.03 | 0.044 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.996 | 1.86 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
Models | Coefficients | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | |
LM 1 | 5.52 | 0 | −0.0002 | −1.19 | −0.003 | 0 | 0.145 | 0.03 |
LM 2 | 7.06 | −0.003 | 0.005 | −6.091 | −0.001 | 0.0002 | 0.015 | 0.0214 |
LM 3 | 5.2 | −0.003 | 0.0037 | −5.55 | 0.0017 | 0.0002 | 0.0151 | 0.0151 |
LM 4 | 5.78 | −0.005 | 0.0035 | −4.62 | −0.0002 | 0.0015 | 0.0151 | 0.022 |
LM 5 | 8.08 | −0.0041 | 0.0015 | −8.45 | 0.0006 | 0.0003 | 0.063 | 0.01 |
LM 6 | 8.4 | −0.004 | 0.0015 | −8.45 | 0.0003 | 0.0003 | 0.074 | 0.01 |
LM 7 | 3.732 | 0.0016 | 0.004 | −2.3 | −0.0006 | 0 | −0.0053 | 0.011 |
LM 8 | 9.6 | 0.0025 | 0.0076 | −2.955 | −0.0077 | 0 | −0.049 | 0.0574 |
LM 9 | 6.9 | 0.0047 | 0.0099 | −2.0359 | −0.0057 | 0 | −0.0404 | 0.0063 |
LM 10 | 15.8 | 0.0013 | 0.012 | −5.56 | −0.012 | 0 | −0.047 | 0.005 |
LM 11 | 15.8 | 0.0013 | 0.0119 | −5.56 | −0.012 | 0 | −0.047 | 0.005 |
LM 12 | 10.57 | 0.0032 | 0.011 | −4.43 | −0.008 | 0 | −0.047 | 0.005 |
Model | Training Set | Testing Set | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | RMSE | RRMSE | RSE | R | RMSE | RRMSE | RSE | |||
GEP II | 0.93 | 0.378 | 0.111 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.95 | 0.339 | 0.096 | 0.11 | 0.05 |
ANN II | 0.96 | 0.2816 | 0.0836 | 0.08 | 0.043 | 0.98 | 0.198 | 0.0548 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
M5P II | 0.94 | 0.3547 | 0.1053 | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.93 | 0.4053 | 0.112 | 0.17 | 0.06 |
RF II | 0.99 | 0.135 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.99 | 0.122 | 0.0337 | 0.015 | 0.02 |
Model | Training Set | Testing Set | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | RMSE | RRMSE | RSE | R | RMSE | RRMSE | RSE | |||
GEP III | 0.94 | 0.5326 | 0.07226 | 0.125 | 0.04 | 0.93 | 0.455 | 0.0616 | 0.16 | 0.03 |
ANN III | 0.98 | 0.3522 | 0.048 | 0.055 | 0.02 | 0.97 | 0.2753 | 0.0373 | 0.06 | 0.02 |
M5P III | 0.85 | 0.858 | 0.1146 | 0.3 | 0.06 | 0.87 | 0.7054 | 0.099 | 0.66 | 0.05 |
RF III | 0.99 | 0.247 | 0.0366 | 0.03 | 0.018 | 0.99 | 0.147 | 0.0207 | 0.03 | 0.01 |
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Shah, H.A.; Yuan, Q.; Akmal, U.; Shah, S.A.; Salmi, A.; Awad, Y.A.; Shah, L.A.; Iftikhar, Y.; Javed, M.H.; Khan, M.I. Application of Machine Learning Techniques for Predicting Compressive, Splitting Tensile, and Flexural Strengths of Concrete with Metakaolin. Materials 2022, 15, 5435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155435
Shah HA, Yuan Q, Akmal U, Shah SA, Salmi A, Awad YA, Shah LA, Iftikhar Y, Javed MH, Khan MI. Application of Machine Learning Techniques for Predicting Compressive, Splitting Tensile, and Flexural Strengths of Concrete with Metakaolin. Materials. 2022; 15(15):5435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155435
Chicago/Turabian StyleShah, Hammad Ahmed, Qiang Yuan, Usman Akmal, Sajjad Ahmad Shah, Abdelatif Salmi, Youssef Ahmed Awad, Liaqat Ali Shah, Yusra Iftikhar, Muhammad Haris Javed, and Muhammad Imtiaz Khan. 2022. "Application of Machine Learning Techniques for Predicting Compressive, Splitting Tensile, and Flexural Strengths of Concrete with Metakaolin" Materials 15, no. 15: 5435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155435