Applications of PERALS-Alpha Spectrometry for the Investigation of Radionuclides in Water Samples
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Legal Basis in Switzerland
1.2. The PERALS Method
1.3. Selective Extraction
1.4. General Procedure for the Extraction of Radionuclides from Water Samples
1.5. Alpha Spectrometry, PSD
2. Polonium
2.1. General Methods
2.2. Polonium Trace-Analyses
2.3. Drinking Water Monitoring
3. Radium
3.1. General Methods
3.2. Radium Trace Analyses
3.3. Drinking Water Monitoring
3.4. Radium Monitoring Campaigns
4. Radon
4.1. General Methods
4.2. Radon Trace Analyses
4.3. Drinking Water Monitoring
5. Strontium
5.1. General Methods
5.2. Strontium Trace Analyses
6. Thorium
6.1. General Methods
6.2. Thorium Trace Analyses
6.3. Thorium in Mineral Waters
7. Uranium
7.1. General Methods
7.2. Uranium Trace Analyses
7.3. Uranium Monitoring Campaigns
8. Further Actinides
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Drinking Water | Dose Coefficients for Different Age Groups * | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Radionuclide | TBDV [3] | DAL Infant | DAL Adult | Infant (1–2 Years) | Children >10 Years | Adult Person |
Bq/L | Bq/L | Bq/L | µSv/Bq | µSv/Bq | µSv/Bq | |
Americium-241 (241Am) | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.37 | 0.22 | 0.20 |
Lead-210 (210Pb) | 0.04 | 0.2 | 3.6 | 1.9 | 0.69 | |
Polonium-210 (210Po) | 0.02 | 0.1 | 8.8 | 2.6 | 1.2 | |
Plutonium 239 + 240Pu | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.42 | 0.27 | 0.25 | |
Radium-224 (224Ra) | 0.2 | 2 | 0.66 | 0.26 | 0.07 | |
Radium-226 (226Ra) | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.96 | 0.8 | 0.28 | |
Radium-228 (228Ra) | 0.1 | 0.2 | 30 | 3.9 | 0.69 | |
Radon (222Rn) | 100 | 2 | 5 | 0.073 | 0.06 | 0.028 |
Strontium-90 (90Sr) | 4.9 | 0.4 | 2 | 0.37 | 0.14 | 0.07 |
Thorium-228 (228Th) | 0.4 | 2 | 0.37 | 0.14 | 0.07 | |
Thorium-230 (230Th) | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.41 | 0.29 | 0.23 | |
Thorium-232 (232Th) | 0.3 | 5 | 0.45 | 0.06 | 0.028 | |
Uranium-234 (234U) | 1 | 2.8 | 0.13 | 0.074 | 0.049 | |
Uranium-238 (238U) | 1 | 3 | 0.12 | 0.068 | 0.045 |
Cocktail | Scintillator | Extractant | Energy Transfer Agent | Solvent |
---|---|---|---|---|
ALPHAEX | PBBO, PPO, NPO | HDEHP | Naphthalene | Toluene |
POLEX | PBBO | TOPO | Naphthalene | Toluene |
RADAEX | PBBO | 2-methyl-2-heptyl-nonanoic acid, Dicyclohexano-21-crown-7 | Naphthalene | Toluene |
RADONS | PBBO | No extractant | Naphthalene | Xylene |
STRONEX | PBBO | C6-C8-Neocarboxilic acids, Dicyclohexano-18-crown-6 | Naphthalene | Toluene |
URAEX | PBBO | Tert. Amine (MG > 300) | Naphthalene | Toluene |
THOREX | PBBO | Primary Amine (MG > 300) | Naphthalene | Toluene |
Polonium Nuclide | Decay Chain | Decay | Half-Life | Main Alpha Energy Lines |
---|---|---|---|---|
218Po | 238U-series | α | 3.1 m | 6002 (100) |
214Po | α | 162 µs | 7687 (100) | |
210Po | α | 138.4 d | 5304 (100) | |
216Po | 232Th-series | α | 0.15 s | 6778 (100) |
212Po | α | 0.3 µs | 8785 (100) | |
215Po | 235U-series | α | 1.8 µs | 7386 (100) |
211Po | α | 0.52 s | 7450 (99) | |
208Po | tracer | α | 2.99 y | 5216 (100) |
209Po | tracer | α | 102 y | 4977 (79) 4979 (20) |
Radium Nuclide | Decay | Half-Life | Main Alpha Energy Lines |
---|---|---|---|
228Ra | β | 5.75 y | |
226Ra | α | 1600 y | 4601 (6), 4784 (94) |
224Ra | α | 3.63 d | 5448 (5), 5685 (94) |
223Ra | α | 11.43 d | 5539 (11), 5607 (26) 5713 (50), 5757 (10) |
Radon Nuclide | Decay Chain | Decay | Half-Life | Main Alpha Energy Lines |
---|---|---|---|---|
222Rn (“radon“) | 238U-series | α | 3.82 d | 5489 (100) |
220Rn (“thoron”) | 232Th-series | α | 55.8 s | 5449 (5) 6288 (95) |
219Rn (“actinon”) | 235U-series | α | 3.98 s | 5425 (8), 6553 (13) 6819 (79) |
Radio Nuclide | Decay | Half-life | Energy Beta Max |
---|---|---|---|
89Sr | β,γ | 50.6 d | 1495 |
90Sr | β | 28.8 y | 545.9 |
90Y | β | 64.1 h | 2279 |
Thorium Nuclide | Decay Chain | Decay | Half-Life | Main Alpha Energy Lines |
---|---|---|---|---|
234Th | 238U-series | β | 4.5 109 y | – |
230Th | α | 7.5 104 y | 4621 (23.4) 4787 (76.3) | |
232Th | 232Th-series | α | 1.4 1010 y | 3949 (21.0) 4011 (78.9) |
228Th | α | 1.92 y | 5340 (26.0) 5423 (73.4) | |
231Th | 235U-series | β | 25.52 h | – |
227Th | α | 18.72 d | 5757 (20.4) 5978 (23.5) 6038 (24.2) | |
229Th | tracer | α | 7.9 103 y | 4837 (58.2) 4894 (10.7) 4806 (11.4) |
Uranium Nuclide | Decay Chain | Decay | Half-Life | Main Alpha Energy Lines |
---|---|---|---|---|
238U | 238U-series | α | 4.5 109 y | 4151 (22.3) 4198 (77.4) |
234U | α | 2.5 105 y | 4722 (28.4) 4775 (71.4) | |
235U | 235U-series | α | 7.0 108 y | 4366 (18.8) 4398 (57.2) |
232U | Tracer | α | 72 y | 5260 (32) 5320 (68) |
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Zehringer, M.; Kammerer, F.; Pregler, A. Applications of PERALS-Alpha Spectrometry for the Investigation of Radionuclides in Water Samples. Materials 2021, 14, 3787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143787
Zehringer M, Kammerer F, Pregler A. Applications of PERALS-Alpha Spectrometry for the Investigation of Radionuclides in Water Samples. Materials. 2021; 14(14):3787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143787
Chicago/Turabian StyleZehringer, Markus, Franziska Kammerer, and Anja Pregler. 2021. "Applications of PERALS-Alpha Spectrometry for the Investigation of Radionuclides in Water Samples" Materials 14, no. 14: 3787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143787