Current State of Development of Electricity-Generating Technologies: A Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Summary
Technology | Annual generation a (TWhel/y) | Capacity factor b (%) | Mitigation potential c (GtCO2) | Energy requirements d (kWhth/kWhel) | CO2 emissions (g/kWhel) | Generating cost (US¢/kWh) | Barriers |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coal | 7,755 | 70–90 | 2.6–3.5 e,f | 900 e,f | 3–6 g | Greenhouse gas emissions | |
Oil | 1,096 | 60–90 | 2.6–3.5 h | 700 h | 3–6 g | Resource constraints | |
Gas | 3,807 | ≈ 60 | 2–3 e,f,i | 450 e,f,i | 4–6 g | Fuel price | |
Carbon capture and storage | - | n.a. | 150–250 j.k | 2–2.5 + 0.3–1 l | 170–280 f,l,m | 3–6 + 0–4 n,o,p | Energy penalty, large-scale storage, late deployment |
Nuclear fission q | 2,793 | 86 r | > 180 | 0.12 s | 65 s | 3–7 g,t | Waste disposal, proliferation, public acceptance |
Large hydro | 3,121 | 41 | 200–300 u | 0.1 v | 45–200 v,w | 4–10 g,t | Resource potential, social and environmental impact |
Small hydro | ≈250 | ≈50 | ≈100 ? | n.a. | 45 v | 4–20 g,t,x | Resource potential |
Wind | 260 y | 24.5 | ≈450–500 | 0.05 z | ≈65 z,aa | 3–7 g | Variability and grid integration |
Solar-photovoltaic | 12 ab | 15 | 25–200 ? | 0.4/1–0.8/1 ac | 40/150 – 100/200 ac | 10–20 g,t,ad | Generating cost |
Concentrating Solar | ≈1 | 20–40 | 25–200 ? | 0.3 h | 50–90 h | 15–25 g,t,ae | Generating cost |
Geothermal | 60 | 70–90 | 25–500 ? | n.a. | 20–140 af | 6–8 ag | Uncertain field capacity |
Biomass | 240 ah | 60 ah | ≈ 100 | 2.3–4.2 ai | 35–85 ai | 3–9 t,ah | Efficiency, feedstock availability, cost |
2. Rationale
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- its technical principle,
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- the total potential of its global energy sources,
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- its capacity factor and capacity credit,
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- life-cycle characteristics, such as kWh-specific greenhouse gas emissions, or embodied energy, over the lifetime of the installations,
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- the scale at which the technology is currently deployed,
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- the contribution it currently makes to global electricity supply,
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- the cost of its current electricity output,
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- the extent of subsidisation by governments (in a separate section), and
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- technical and other challenges.
3. Introduction
3.1. Role of Electricity in World Energy Needs
3.2. Demand Projections and Scenarios
4. Carbon Capture and Storage
4.1. Potential of Resource
4.2. Post-combustion Capture
4.2.1. Technical principle
4.2.2. Capacity and load characteristics
4.2.3. Life-cycle characteristics
4.2.4. Current scale of deployment
4.2.5. Cost of electricity output
4.2.6. Technical challenges
4.3. Pre-combustion Capture
4.3.1. Technical principle
4.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
4.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
4.3.4. Current scale of deployment
4.3.5. Cost of electricity output
4.3.6. Technical challenges
4.4. Oxyfuel capture
4.4.1. Technical principle
4.4.2. Capacity and load characteristics
4.4.3. Life-cycle characteristics
4.4.4. Current scale of deployment
4.4.5. Cost of electricity output
4.4.6. Technical challenges
4.5. Geological Storage
4.5.1. Technical principle
4.5.2. Capacity and load characteristics
4.5.3. Life-cycle characteristics
4.5.4. Current scale of deployment
4.5.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
4.5.6. Cost of electricity output
2.1.1. Technical challenges
5. Nuclear Fission
5.1. Summary
5.2. Global potential of resource
5.3. Generation-II and -III reactors
5.3.1. Technical principle
5.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
5.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
5.3.4. Current scale of deployment
5.3.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
5.3.6. Cost of electricity output
5.3.7. Technical challenges
5.4. Generation-IV reactors
- improve nuclear safety,
- improve proliferation resistance,
- minimise waste and
- natural resource sustainability,
Type | passive safety | resource sustainability | waste minimisation | proliferation resistance | competitive power | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gen III+ LWR | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
FBR | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
MSR | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Can use on-site reprocessing | ||
MPBR | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Spent fuel can be transmuted a | ||
ADS | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓b | Minor contribution to power generation |
5.4.1. Technical principle
5.4.1.1. Breeding
System | Abbreviation | Neutron Spectrum | Coolant | Maximum Temperature (°C) | Pressure | Fuel | Fuel Cycle | Output (MWe) | Output |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gas-cooled fast reactor | GFR | Fast | Helium | 850 | High | U-238, MOX | In situ closed | 288 | Electricity, hydrogen production |
Liquid metal (e.g., Pb) cooled fast reactor | LMFR | Fast | Pb-Bi | 550–800 | Low | U-238, MOX | Closed, regional | 50–150, 300–400, 1200 | Electricity, hydrogen production |
Molten-salt reactor | MSR | Epithermal | Floride salts | 700–800 | Low | UF6 in salt | In situ closed | 1000 | Electricity, hydrogen production |
Sodium-cooled fast reactor | SFR | Fast | Sodium | 550 | Low | U-238, MOX | Closed | 300–1500 | Electricity |
Supercritical, water-cooled reactor | SCWR | Thermal; fast | Water | 510–550 | Very high | UO2 | Open (th), closed (f) | 1500 | Electricity |
Very high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (as in the GA system) | VHTR | Thermal | Helium | 1000 | High | UO2 | Open | 250 | Electricity, hydrogen production |
5.4.1.2. Fast reactors
5.4.1.3. Fast and thermal breeder reactors
5.4.1.4. High burnup
5.4.1.5. Passive safety–The pebble bed and molten salt reactors
5.4.1.6. High-temperature heat – nuclear hydrogen
5.4.1.7. Thorium fuel cycle
5.4.1.8. Subcritical reactors
5.4.1.9. Transmutation
5.4.2. Capacity and load characteristics
5.4.3. Life-cycle characteristics
5.4.4. Current scale of deployment
5.4.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
5.4.6. Cost of electricity output
5.4.7. Technical challenges
Generation-IV goal | VHTR | GFR | SFR | LFR | SCWR | MSR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Efficient electricity generation | Very high | High | High | High | High | High |
Flexibility: availability of high-temperature process heat | Very high | High | Low | Low | Low | Low |
Sustainability: creation of fissile material | Medium/low | High | High | High | Low | Medium/low |
Sustainability: transmutation of waste | Medium | Very high | Very high | Very high | Low | High |
Potential for “passive” safety | High | Very low | Medium/low | Medium | Very low | Medium |
Current technical feasibility | High | Medium/low | High | Medium | Medium/low | Low |
6. Hydroelectric Power
6.1. Summary
6.2. Global Potential of Resource
6.3. Dam and run-of-river plants
6.3.1. Technical principle
6.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
6.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
6.3.4. Current scale of deployment
Name | Country | Year of completion | Total Capacity (MW) | Max annual electricity production (TWh) | Area flooded (km2) | Load factor (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Three Gorges | China | 2009 | 22,500 | >100 | 632 | 62 |
Itaipu | Brazil/Paraguay | 1984/1991/2003 | 14,000 | 90 | 1,350 | 73 |
Guri | Venezuela | 1986 | 10,200 | 46 | 4,250 | 51 |
Tucuruí | Brazil | 1984 | 8,370 | 21 | 29 | |
Robert-Bourassa | Canada | 1981 | 7,722 | |||
Sayano Shushenskaya | Russia | 1985/1989 | 6,400 | 26.8 | 48 | |
Krasnoyarskaya | Russia | 1972 | 6,000 | 20.4 | 2,000 | 39 |
Grand Coulee | United States | 1942/1980 | 6,809 | 22.6 | 38 | |
Churchill Falls | Canada | 1971 | 5,429 | 35 | 6,988 | 74 |
Longtan Dam | China | 2009 | 4,900 | 18.7 | 34 | |
Bratskaya | Russia | 1967 | 4,500 | 22.6 | 57 | |
Ust Ilimskaya | Russia | 1980 | 4,320 | 21.7 | 57 | |
Yaciretá | Argentina/Paraguay | 1998 | 4,050 | 19.2 | 1,600 | 54 |
Tarbela Dam | Pakistan | 1976 | 3,478 | 13 | 43 | |
Ertan Dam | China | 1999 | 3,300 | 17.0 | 59 | |
Ilha Solteira | Brazil | 1974 | 3,200 | |||
Xingó | Brazil | 1994/1997 | 3,162 | |||
Gezhouba Dam | China | 1988 | 3,115 | 17.01 | 62 | |
Nurek Dam | Tajikistan | 1979/1988 | 3,000 | 11.2 | 43 | |
La Grande-4 | Canada | 1986 | 2,779 | |||
W.A.C. Bennett | Canada | 1968 | 2,730 | |||
Chief Joseph | United States | 1958/73/79 | 2,620 | |||
Volzhskaya | Russia | 1961 | 2,541 | 12.3 | 55 | |
Niagara Falls | United States | 1961 | 2,515 | |||
Paulo Afonso IV | Brazil | 1955 | 2,462 | |||
Chicoasen | Mexico | 1980 | 2,430 | |||
La Grande-3 | Canada | 1984 | 2,418 | |||
Atatürk Dam | Turkey | 1990 | 2,400 | 8.9 | 42 | |
Zhiguliovskay | Russia | 1957 | 2,300 | 10.5 | 52 | |
Iron Gates-I | Romania/Serbia | 1970 | 2,192 | 13 | 68 | |
Caruachi | Venezuela | 2006 | 2,160 | 12.95 | 68 | |
John Day Dam | United States | 1971 | 2,160 | |||
Aswan | Egypt | 1970 | 2,100 | 11 | 60 | |
Itumbiara | Brazil | 1980 | 2,082 | |||
Hoover Dam | United States | 1936/1961 | 2,080 | |||
Cahora Bassa | Mozambique | 1975 | 2,075 | |||
The Dalles Dam | United States | 1981 | 2,038 | |||
Karun I Dam | Iran | 1976 | 2,000 | |||
Karun II Dam | Iran | 2001 | 2,000 | |||
Karun III Dam | Iran | 2007 | 2,000 | 4.1 | 23 | |
Lijiaxia Dam | China | 2000 | 2,000 |
6.3.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
6.3.6. Cost of electricity output
6.3.7. Technical and other challenges
- –
- displacement of residents from flooded areas,
- –
- transformation of traditional land use,
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- sedimentation and eutrophication of reservoirs, scouring of downstream riverbeds,
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- disturbance and fragmentation of faunal habitat, obstruction of fish passage, thermal pollution, disruption of reproductive cycles, and changes in fish species composition,
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- large accidental dam failures or purposeful attacks on large dams.
7. Wind energy
7.1. Summary
7.2. Global potential of resource
- -
- the theoretical potential (the energy content of global wind),
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- the geographical potential of on-shore wind (excluding land areas with wind speeds below 4 m/s (if the cut-off point had been 6 m/s, areas with current wind turbine installations would have been excluded), and those unavailable for turbine installation, such as nature reserves and areas with other functions urban areas, high altitudes above 2,000 m with low air density (Table 1 in [198] provides suitability factors, which show the percentage of a land area available for wind turbine installation),
- -
- the technical potential (extrapolating wind data to hub height, considering wake effects and realistic power densities in MW/km2, applying average capacity factors, subtracting down time), and
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- the economic potential given cost of alternative sources (calculating rated turbine power optimised for grid cell wind conditions, regressing capital cost and turbine output as a function of rated power and an economies-of-scale factor).
7.3. Wind energy converters
7.3.1. Technical principle
7.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
7.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
7.3.4. Current scale of deployment
7.3.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
7.3.6. Cost of electricity output
7.3.7. Technical challenges
8. Photovoltaic power
8.1. Summary
8.2. Global potential of resource
Progress ratio, pr | 0.7 | 0.75 | 0.8 | 0.85 | 0.9 |
Breakeven cumulative production, nb (GWP) | 23 | 48 | 148 | 957 | 39700 |
Breakeven cumulative production, as % of 3300 GW, the present world capacity | 0.7% | 1.5% | 4.5% | 29.0% | 1200% |
Cost of reaching breakeven, Cb ($ billion) | 37 | 74 | 211 | 1240 | 46800 |
Cost of producing nb – n0, if unit cost were already at breakeven, (nb – n0) cb ($ billion) | 22 | 47 | 147 | 956 | 39700 |
Cost gap, Cb – (nb – n0) cb ($ billion) | 15 | 27 | 64 | 288 | 7110 |
Cost gap (% of cost of reaching breakeven) | 41% | 36% | 30% | 23% | 15% |
Avoided damage of nb – n0 (at 0.25 $/WP, in $ billion) | 5 | 12 | 37 | 239 | 9920 |
Avoided damage (% of cost gap) | 37% | 44% | 58% | 83% | 140% |
8.3. Photovoltaic cells, modules and systems
8.3.1. Technical principle
8.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
8.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
8.3.4. Current scale of deployment
8.3.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
8.3.6. Cost of electricity output
8.3.7. Technical challenges
9. Concentrating solar power
9.1. Summary
9.2. Global potential of resource
9.3. Solar-thermal troughs, dishes, towers, and Linear Fresnel systems
9.3.1. Technical principle
9.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
9.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
9.3.4. Current scale of deployment
9.3.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
9.3.6. Cost of electricity output
9.3.7. Technical challenges
10. Geothermal power
10.1. Summary
10.2. Global potential of resource
10.3. Geothermal power plants
10.3.1. Technical principle
10.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
10.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
10.3.4. Current scale of deployment
10.3.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
10.3.6. Cost of electricity output
10.3.7. Technical challenges
11. Biomass
11.1. Summary
11.2. Global potential of resource
11.3. Biomass-fired and co-fired power plants
11.3.1. Technical principle
11.3.2. Capacity and load characteristics
11.3.3. Life-cycle characteristics
11.3.4. Current scale of deployment
11.3.5. Contribution to global electricity supply
11.3.6. Cost of electricity output
11.3.7. Technical and other challenges
Acknowledgement
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Lenzen, M. Current State of Development of Electricity-Generating Technologies: A Literature Review. Energies 2010, 3, 462-591. https://doi.org/10.3390/en3030462
Lenzen M. Current State of Development of Electricity-Generating Technologies: A Literature Review. Energies. 2010; 3(3):462-591. https://doi.org/10.3390/en3030462
Chicago/Turabian StyleLenzen, Manfred. 2010. "Current State of Development of Electricity-Generating Technologies: A Literature Review" Energies 3, no. 3: 462-591. https://doi.org/10.3390/en3030462