Solar Panel Waste Management: Challenges, Opportunities, and the Path to a Circular Economy

Abstract

The swift global proliferation of solar photovoltaic (PV) technology has significantly contributed to the acceleration of the transition to renewable energy. Projections indicate a significant rise in installed capacity by 2050, suggesting that the extensive implementation of solar panels is transforming energy systems while simultaneously highlighting important issues regarding end-of-life waste management and long-term sustainability. The environmental advantages of photovoltaic (PV) systems are overshadowed by the prevalent reliance on landfilling and inadequate recycling practices, revealing a substantial deficiency in sustainable waste management, especially in areas with underdeveloped policy frameworks. This research study examines the solar panel supply chain, highlighting critical stages, sources of waste generation, existing management practices, and potential areas for enhancement. Waste is classified into four categories, solid, hazardous, electronic (WEEE), and environmental, each necessitating specific management strategies. Regions such as Europe exhibit comprehensive legal frameworks and advanced recycling technologies, whereas others, including Latin America and certain areas of Asia, continue to encounter deficits in policy and infrastructure. The research highlights the implementation of the 6R principles—Recycle, Recover, Reduce, Reuse, Repair, and Refine—within a circular economy framework to improve sustainability, optimize resource utilization, and reduce environmental impact. The findings highlight the necessity for coordinated policies, technological innovation, and international collaboration to ensure a sustainable future for solar energy. This study offers important insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers focused on enhancing circularity and sustainability within the photovoltaic sector.

1. Introduction

The installation of renewable energies has become one of the most relevant options for diversifying the generation matrix, with its share increasing from 15% of the total in 2002 to 83% in 2022 in the installation of generation technologies, representing approximately 40% of the installed energy generation capacity worldwide [1]. By 2028, countries like the United States, the European Union, India, and Brazil are expected to double their installed capacity in solar and wind energy compared to the previous five years [2]. By 2050, this type of energy is expected to generate 50% of electricity in the European Union; likewise, in Australia, the penetration rate of photovoltaic energy reached 46% in 2023 in small-scale applications [1].

The production of energy through photovoltaic solar technology can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other harmful components [1], contributing to a reduction in climate change. Additionally, this type of energy contributes to alleviating energy poverty and reduces air pollution [3]. According to [4], these benefits have driven the daily increase in installed photovoltaic solar energy capacity worldwide, owing to its high efficiency and significant contribution to reducing pollution. Furthermore, due to the exponential growth in manufacturing capacity (in 2023, three times the levels of 2021), there was a nearly 50% decrease in the price of photovoltaic modules, increasing the penetration rate in large- and small-scale applications [2]. The installed capacity for renewable energy sources has shown consistent exponential growth (see Figure 1), with the growth of photovoltaic energy being particularly notable. In 2022, photovoltaic energy accounted for approximately 60% of new power generation technology installations worldwide.

The photovoltaic (PV) market has undergone significant expansion, averaging a 40% annual growth rate over the last twenty years. Projections indicate a global installed capacity of 2840 GW by 2030 and around 5000 GW by 2050 [6]. Countries including Germany (10%), Australia (20%), Japan (7%), the United States (3%), and the Netherlands (5%) have demonstrated significant advancements in the adoption of solar energy [7]. This exponential growth has prompted concerns regarding solar panel waste generation, projected to reach between 1.7 and 8 million tons by 2030, and up to 60 to 78 million tons by 2050. In the worst-case scenario, inadequate management practices could result in global photovoltaic waste reaching 3 billion tons by 2050 [8]. China, as the foremost nation in installed capacity at 40%, may generate approximately 72 million tons of photovoltaic waste by 2050 [9].

This increasing challenge necessitates effective waste management and a life cycle perspective to comprehensively assess the environmental impacts of solar technology. A comprehensive analysis of the entire supply chain is necessary to contextualize and address the issue, as much of the existing literature primarily emphasizes technical aspects [8,9]. Assessing the entire photovoltaic supply chain facilitates the identification, localization, and quantification of waste at each stage, thereby uncovering opportunities for intervention [10]. Implementing a systemic and circular approach throughout the value chain is essential for achieving sustainability, a topic that remains insufficiently explored in current research.

A typical solar panel recycling facility can recover approximately 24,468 tons of glass, 2656.43 tons of aluminum, 1404.92 tons of silicon, and 49.89 tons of copper annually [11]. On average, processing one ton of solar panels yields around 33.5 kg of silicon, 9.3 kg of copper, and other valuable residual materials [12]. Waste generated from end-of-life photovoltaic (PV) modules include considerable quantities of carbon steel (approximately 1.45 million tons) and glass (1.1 million tons), along with plastics, aluminum, copper, silicon, and silver. In 2017, the industry reported significant material losses during manufacturing processes—specifically, 160,000 tons of silicon lost during wafer cutting and an additional 70,000 tons during crucible melting [13].

In 2016, it was estimated that between 43,500 and 250,000 metric tons of panels had been discarded. Projections indicate that by 2040, global waste from solar panels could include up to 2.7 million tons of aluminum, 8250 tons of silver, and 166,500 tons of copper- and polymer-containing cables [14]. Recycling efforts have the potential to significantly mitigate environmental impact. For example, recycling just 185 tons of solar panels can save between 1480 and 2220 tons of CO₂ emissions [15]. This is particularly relevant considering that emissions from solar panel manufacturing have quadrupled over the past decade, reaching over 51,900 kilotons of CO₂ [16]. However, current waste flows remain largely undocumented due to a lack of comprehensive data, which presents major challenges for effective tracking and management [17].

At present, three primary recycling procedures are utilized to handle end-of-life photovoltaic (PV) modules: physical, thermal, and chemical methods. These procedures typically adhere to a three-step methodology: delamination (the disjunction of panel layers), material separation, and material extraction or purification [18]. Collectively, these recycling processes can attain efficiencies of up to 96% in recovering important materials such as silicon, silver, aluminum, glass, and high-purity copper [18,19].

Specifically, these technologies have proven highly effective in recovering up to 95% of silver and copper, as well as the aluminum frame, which constitutes around 13% of a panel’s overall mass [20]. Crystalline silicon and cadmium telluride panels dominate the market, accounting for 92% and 5% of the market share, respectively. Both technologies exhibit favorable recovery rates, achieving up to 90% for crystalline silicon and 85% for cadmium telluride panels [21].

Currently, there is extensive research analyzing the processes of solar technology adoption, which include technical, economic, political, social, and environmental aspects [6,7]. However, ref. [21] indicates that there has been insufficient research on the circularity of the photovoltaic (PV) energy market, especially concerning supply chain analysis, waste generation, and waste management strategies. The current literature is characterized by fragmented and dispersed information, impeding a comprehensive and integrated assessment of the sector’s practices and challenges. This article presents a systematic literature review to enhance the understanding of solar panel waste management in the photovoltaic supply chain. This study initiates by identifying and characterizing the supply chain structure, aiming to map the various processes and activities involved. This analysis facilitates the identification of waste flows and potential opportunities for improved management interventions.

This review aims to consolidate and unify the fragmented knowledge in the literature by reconstructing the solar panel supply chain from three interrelated perspectives: its structure, the types and sources of waste it generates, and the strategies employed for waste management. This integrated perspective aids in identifying emerging research trends and offers a comprehensive framework to support quantitative modeling for system optimization. The findings provide a basis for future research focused on enhancing supply chain performance, developing circular economy business models, and identifying management strategies that promote sustainability within the photovoltaic sector.

This paper is structured in the following manner: Section 2 outlines the methodology, specifying the procedures, data sources, and criteria employed for the literature review and analysis. Section 3 presents the results, detailing the primary findings of this study in relation to the research objectives. Section 4 offers detailed analysis, interpreting the results and juxtaposing them with findings from prior research. Section 5 presents the conclusions, summarizing the primary insights of this research study, emphasizing its contributions, and proposing avenues for future investigation.

2. Methodology

This systematic literature review is carried out to structure and describe the solar panel supply chain, to finally establish the waste existing along the chain its current management, and, based on this, to define the management opportunities that can be applied to improve the waste treatment of these. For the development of this literature review, elements of the methodology proposed by [22] were adopted to address the following three research questions:

Q1: What is the solar panel supply chain?

Q2: What waste is produced in the solar panel supply chain and how is it managed?

Q3: What opportunities are there in the waste management of the solar panel supply chain?, explanations of type of each question is in

Table 1. Fundamental keywords for the search according to the review questions.

Question	Keywords
1	Supply chain, value chain, manufacturing chain
2, 3	Waste, management, control, organization, reuse, recycle, reject, repair, reduce, renew, recovery, sustainable, circular
1, 2, 3	Panel, cell, photovoltaic, solar

.

This literature review was performed from January to March 2024 utilizing the Scopus and ScienceDirect databases. The selection of these platforms was based on their comprehensive coverage of peer-reviewed scientific studies and their established reputation for providing accurate, high-quality, and reliable research outputs.

Additionally, the literature selection was based on publications from 2016 to 2024, ensuring a focus on recent and relevant studies that reflect current practices and emerging trends in solar panel supply chain management and waste treatment.

We established a series of inclusion and exclusion criteria to maintain the relevance and methodological rigor of the selected studies, as detailed in

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria in this systematic literature review.

Classification	No.	Criteria
Inclusion	C1	Title, abstract, and/or keywords contain the keywords from Table 2.
	C2	Publications in English.
	C3	The abstract and superficial review of the article allow for answering one of the three research questions either directly or indirectly.
Exclusion	C4	Title, abstract, and/or keywords contain terms related to other energy sources such as hydrogen or wind.
	C5	Duplicate publications.
	C6	Restricted access publications.

. The selection process was guided by these criteria, which facilitated the filtering of relevant documents for analysis, ensuring that only studies aligned with the research objectives and scope were included. For a better understanding of labels, C1–C3 represent the inclusion criteria employed to identify publications pertinent to the study inquiries. In addition, C4–C6 serve as exclusion criteria to eliminate irrelevant, redundant, or unavailable articles.

In addition to the publications selected on the basis of the above criteria, three reports from governmental entities that address the issue of solar panel waste management from an informative approach were added. Figure 2 shows the described flow for the search of publications to answer the research questions, where the number of results obtained in each of the databases used for the systematic search can be observed.

In Figure 2, it can be observed that applying the filter for keywords C1 and unrestricted access publications C6 resulted in a notable reduction in the number of publications, decreasing from thousands to fewer than a hundred results in each database. Additionally, it can be observed that prior to the selection of publications in English, Q1 generated the largest number of results, while Q3 contributed the least number of publications to the final sample. Subsequently, after reviewing and eliminating duplicate publications, the sample was reduced from 177 to 137, meaning 22.6% of the documents that were duplicated in both databases were removed. Finally, after analyzing the publications to determine their accuracy and relevance in relation to the research questions, the sample was reduced from 137 to 42 documents, meaning only 30.7% of the total results were considered.

Subsequently, an analysis of the information is conducted, and the current state of the solar panel supply chain, waste management, and opportunities are documented based on the selected literature.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Analysis of Selected Publications

The results show that among the selected publications are journal articles, conference papers, literature reviews, government reports, brief notes, and surveys. In

Table 3. Proportion by document type in the selected sample.

Document Type	Amount	Proportion
Article	30	66.7%
Conference paper	2	4.4%
Review	8	17.8%
Report	3	6.7%
Note	1	2.2%
Survey	1	2.2%

, it can be observed that, out of a total of 45 documents, 30 are articles, which accounts for 66.7% of the complete sample. Additionally, literature reviews constitute 17.8% of the sample, with a total of eight documents, while government reports (3) and conference papers (2) comprise 6.7% and 4.4%, respectively. Lastly, a smaller proportion of brief notes and surveys was found, each represented by a single document in the sample.

Figure 3 highlights an increase in the number of studies on solar panel supply chain waste management over the years. In the analyzed sample, fourteen publications were identified in 2023, with three additional ones in 2024. On the other hand, 2018 has the lowest representation, with only one publication in the sample.

Furthermore, the selected sample contains publications from twenty-seven journals and three different institutions. Among the journals with the highest presence in the sample, Resources, Conservation and Recycling stands out, with five publications, followed by Sustainability, the Journal of Cleaner Production, Solar Energy, and Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, each with three publications.

Table 4. Publications by journal or institution.

Name of the Journal/Institution	Amount	Name of the Journal/Institution	Amount
Resources, Conservation and Recycling	5	Innovation and Development	1
Journal of Cleaner Production	3	International Energy Agency—IEA	1
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews	3	International Renewable Energy Agency—IRENA	1
Solar Energy	3	International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering	1
Sustainability	3	IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science	1
Energy Research and Social Science	2	Joule	1
Materials Today: Proceedings	2	Journal of Business Research	1
Waste Management and Research	2	Microsystem Technologies	1
Applied Energy	1	Office of Scientific and Technical Information—OSTI	1
Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy	1	Renewable Energy	1
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry	1	Resources Policy	1
Energies	1	Social Sciences & Humanities Open	1
Energy for Sustainable Development	1	Sustainable Horizons	1
Energy Technology	1	Sustainable Production and Consumption	1
Environmental Research Letters	1	Waste Management	1

details the number of publications for each of the journals and institutions. It is important to note that 22 of them only have one publication.

Figure 4 identifies the countries with the highest number of publications in the sample. Of the 45 documents analyzed, Australia, India, and the United States stand out with six publications each. Furthermore, China only has one publication, despite being one of the most important countries in the development of solar energy.

In the review results, it is notable that the most cited document (124 times) was published in the journal Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews and was conducted in 2020 by 11 different authors. This publication is followed by another in the journal Resources, which has 116 citations and was written by five authors. The remaining documents have fewer than 100 citations. Of these, nine have no citations, five have only one citation, and the rest have been cited more than twice.

Table 5. Most cited publications in Scopus (S).

Journal	Citations	Publication	Authors	Year
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews	124	“Technical challenges and opportunities in realising a circular economy for waste photovoltaic modules”	11	2020
Resources	116	“End-of-life photovoltaic modules: A systematic quantitative literature review”	5	2019
Waste Management	78	“Recycling and reuse of kerf-loss silicon from diamond wire sawing for photovoltaic industry”	5	2019
Resources, Conservation and Recycling	50	“Promoting a circular economy in the solar photovoltaic industry using life cycle symbiosis”	3	2020
Resources, Conservation and Recycling	49	“Critical assessment of renewable energy waste generation in OECD countries: Decommissioned PV panels”	3	2021

provides the complete details of the five most cited articles on the topic, including the number of authors, citations, and year of publication.

3.2. Results of the Literature Review

What Is the Solar Panel Supply Chain?

In the literature, up to four process links comprising various activities were identified. These links are upstream, midstream, downstream, and auxiliary. Table 6 presents the identified activities for the upstream link, while Table 7 presents the activities for the midstream link, Table 8 for the downstream link, and, finally, Table 9 for the auxiliary link.

The first link, termed upstream, is a process that encompasses transformation activities for the manufacturing of panels. It is stated to be the initial link in the chain, meaning it is the closest to the supply of photovoltaic systems with initial activities associated with the transformation of raw materials for the manufacturing of cells and modules. Additionally, the authors affirm that it is the link with the highest added value [23,24,25]. Authors such as [23] include the manufacturing of the balance of system components in this link.

Table 6. First link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Upstream	Silica extraction	[23,24,26]
	Solar grade silicon production	[23,24,25,26]
	Silicon ingots
	Silicon wafers
	Production of steel, aluminum, glass, encapsulant film, and others	[23,24,26]
	Cell production	[26,27,28,29]
	Module production
	Balance of system production	[27,28]
	Research and development	[28]
	Photovoltaic system installation

Table 6. First link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Upstream	Silica extraction	[23,24,26]
	Solar grade silicon production	[23,24,25,26]
	Silicon ingots
	Silicon wafers
	Production of steel, aluminum, glass, encapsulant film, and others	[23,24,26]
	Cell production	[26,27,28,29]
	Module production
	Balance of system production	[27,28]
	Research and development	[28]
	Photovoltaic system installation

Table 6 delineates all activities categorized within the upstream segment based on the chosen literature. The upstream connection identifies manufacturing processes, primarily silica extraction, which serves as the essential raw material for photovoltaic panels, followed by the fabrication of solar-grade silicon. This practice entails treating metallurgical silicon to achieve a high degree of purity, essential for converting solar energy into electricity. Thereafter, the refined silicon is cast into ingots, which are subsequently sliced into thin wafers that constitute the solar panel. Conversely, raw materials such steel, aluminum, glass, and encapsulant film must be produced or acquired to ensure the requisite supplies for solar panel construction. Prior to the fabrication of the solar panel, solar cells are manufactured by applying an encapsulant film to silicon wafers, which dopes the silicon to enable electrical conductivity. A series of cells are organized in a hive-like structure utilizing an aluminum frame, glass, and additional components to create the solar module [27,28,29,30].

Authors such as [27,28] identify the construction of the balance of system (electrical components that facilitate the operation of the modules) within this context. Nevertheless, a larger number of authors categorize it in the subsequent link. The authors of [28] categorize research and development activities and the installation of the photovoltaic system in the primary link, although other authors classify them in the auxiliary and downstream links, respectively, as will be demonstrated subsequently.

Subsequently, the midstream link is acknowledged in the literature as a supplementary process reliant on the integration of the balance of system (BOS), which encompasses the electrical components essential for the optimal operation of the photovoltaic installation [23,24,26,28]. Ref. [18] designates this intermediate link as ‘core’ rather than ‘midstream’. Nevertheless, the authors allude to the amalgamation of BOS components, which may be construed as referencing the identical connection, given its placement and roll along the chain. Table 7 enumerates the references that contributed to the identification of this connection.

Table 7. Second link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Midstream Core	Cell production	[23,24]
	Manufacture of cables, frames, sealants, junction box
	Module production
	Balance of system production	[23,25,26]
	Project development	[25]
	Photovoltaic system installation	[25,26]
	Operation and maintenance
	System deactivation	[26]
	Business model operation	[28]

Table 7. Second link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Midstream Core	Cell production	[23,24]
	Manufacture of cables, frames, sealants, junction box
	Module production
	Balance of system production	[23,25,26]
	Project development	[25]
	Photovoltaic system installation	[25,26]
	Operation and maintenance
	System deactivation	[26]
	Business model operation	[28]

The literature delineates up to nine activities within this link, as illustrated in Table 7, encompassing previously mentioned activities from the initial segment, such as cell and module production, which are recognized in this link by merely two authors [23,24]. Conversely, the midstream segment includes activities such the procurement or production of copper cables, frames, sealants, junction boxes, and the integration of the balance of system (BOS) component. This encompasses power inverters, meters, protective devices, and additional electrical apparatus essential for the optimal operation of a solar energy production system [23,24,25,26,28,31]. Furthermore, Refs. [26,28] delineate activities including project creation, solar system installation, operation and maintenance, system deactivation, and business model operation within this context [32]. Nevertheless, the majority of authors categorize them within the downstream link, as demonstrated below.

Following the core link, the literature highlights the downstream link as the process closest to the consumer/end-user, in which activities different from manufacturing are carried out, focusing on the operation and deactivation of photovoltaic systems [27,28,29,33]. Table 8 details the references with contributions to the identification of this link.

Table 8. Third link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Downstream	Project development	[23,27,29]
	Photovoltaic system installation	[23,24,27]
	Operation and maintenance	[6]
	System deactivation	[25,28,29]
	Research and development	[27]

Table 8. Third link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Downstream	Project development	[23,27,29]
	Photovoltaic system installation	[23,24,27]
	Operation and maintenance	[6]
	System deactivation	[25,28,29]
	Research and development	[27]

In the literature, the downstream link encompasses up to five activities, including project development, which manages the solar panel system from planning to execution [15,16]. One of the activities involves the installation of a set of modules in a designated area to form the photovoltaic system, which will operate generating electricity for a service life of 20 to 30 years [19,20]. During its operation, proper maintenance should be performed to prevent early losses of system equipment. Finally, the system is deactivated through the dismantling of modules and the final disposal of equipment and waste [21,24]. Similarly, to the previous classifications, the research and development activity is found within this link according to [27]; however, most authors classify it within the auxiliary link.

The three aforementioned links make up the primary structure of the solar panel supply chain. However, in the literature, another transversal link, known as the auxiliary link, can be identified within the chain [19,20]. This link contains indispensable processes for the effective development of the photovoltaic sector, as it refers to support processes for the proper functioning of the chain. Table 9 details the references with contributions to the identification of this link.

Table 9. Fourth link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Auxiliary	Project development	[28]
	Marketing and sales	[19,20,28]
	Customer service
	Financing and insurance
	Government support	[19,20]
	Assistance from associations and interest organizations
	Legal assistance
	Research and development
	Human resources
	Transportation and logistics
	Commissioning services

Table 9. Fourth link in the solar panel supply chain.

Link	Activities	References
Auxiliary	Project development	[28]
	Marketing and sales	[19,20,28]
	Customer service
	Financing and insurance
	Government support	[19,20]
	Assistance from associations and interest organizations
	Legal assistance
	Research and development
	Human resources
	Transportation and logistics
	Commissioning services

In the auxiliary link, there are ten processes to support the proper functioning of the chain, which include research and development, marketing and sales, customer service, human resources, transportation and logistics, commissioning services, financing and insurance, government support, assistance from associations, and legal assistance [23,26,27,28].

The solar panel supply chain structure has been constructed based on the classification of operations recognized by numerous authors across various segments, as depicted in Figure 5. This diagram delineates the four primary components of the supply chain: upstream, midstream, downstream, and auxiliary. It distinctly demonstrates the advancement and order of duties inside each segment. The upstream sector consists of seven essential operations, starting with silica extraction and ending with the fabrication of solar modules. The subsequent phase is midstream, encompassing two activities pertaining to the balance of system (BoS) components. The downstream sector comprises four actions, including system deactivation and end-of-life management procedures.

Moreover, the auxiliary segment functions as a transversal component that underpins the entire supply chain, from inception to completion. It includes ten interconnected activities that cover all major segments, delivering vital services, infrastructure, and integration support required for the effective operation of the entire supply chain.

Besides the things we have already talked about, there are five other important things that are essential to the solar panel supply chain. One of the most important is the presence of actors who are connected. The literature says that the government is one of the most important stakeholders and that its policies and rules have a big impact on the success of the solar panel business. A lot of different types of institutions are also involved, such as lending companies, consulting firms, research and development (R&D) groups, national and international suppliers, distribution hubs, end users (people, businesses, or communities), contractors, manufacturers, and wholesalers [8,16,34].

Location is another important factor that has a big impact on how the supply chain is set up and how well it works. The literature talks about how important China is in the supply chain’s upstream part. China made 79% of polysilicon, 97% of wafers, 85% of cells, and 75% of modules as of 2021. It also made 70% of industrial silicon. A total of 97% of the world’s solar panels were made in China by 2022 [15,35,36,37]. In the US, 63% of the plates and 82% of the silicon used in solar panels come from China. Vietnam, Malaysia, and Thailand are also important places for manufacturing because they have large assembly plants. Countries like the US, Japan, and Germany, on the other hand, are seen as leaders in R&D [18].

The steps that are taken along with the supply chain are a third important factor. These steps include making panels and managing their end-of-life. Now, trash can be thrown away in landfills, burned [38], recycled in mechanical, thermal, and chemical ways, and it can also be reused [39].

The fourth reason has to do with the technologies and materials that are used to make solar panels. According to the research, there are three main types of panels on the market: crystalline silicon panels, which make up 92% of the market; thin-film panels, which make up about 5%; and perovskite panels, which make up the rest [20]. Steel, copper, polysilicon, silver, aluminum, glass, encapsulant sheets, and many important minerals and metals like antimony, indium, lead, zinc, tin, cadmium, molybdenum, selenium, and tellurium [15] are used to make these panels.

The last and fifth factors are policy and regulation, which controls the supply line for solar panels. Policies that apply include those that say how to handle end-of-life panels [7,18,40], how to classify trash, and how to limit the methods of disposal [7,40]. Even though they are important, the literature shows that many areas have a regulatory lag, which we will talk about in more detail next.

3.3. What Waste Is Produced in the Solar Panel Supply Chain and How Is It Managed?

3.3.1. Types of Waste in the Solar Panel Supply Chain

In the selected publications, it is possible to identify four types of waste in the chain, which can be classified by current regulations or by the nature of the material: solid, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), environmental, and hazardous.

The first classification refers to solid waste from glass, metal, and packaging components generated in the chain [17,38,41,42], with packaging being the least mentioned waste in the sample [19]. In the literature, solid waste from panels at the end of their life cycle (between 20 and 30 years [34]) can be identified [43,44,45,46], for example, with estimates that one ton of panels can produce 33.5 kg of silicon and 9.3 kg of copper [45]. In South Asia, with current solar panel installations, it is possible to find 24.468 tons of glass, 2.656 tons of aluminum, 1.405 tons of silicon, and 50 tons of copper [12]. In the same way, during the manufacturing of silicon ingots and wafers, silicon sawing occurs in the molding of the raw material, resulting in losses of between 30 and 55% of silicon [47]. In 2017, 160,000 tons of silicon were lost during wafer cutting and 70,000 tons during crucible melting [13].

Similarly, within the supply chain, it is possible to find Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) due to components such as inverters, meters, batteries, cables, and others that rely on electricity to operate [33,38,41,48]. This type of classification is mainly determined by the regulations of each country; in Europe, this is the most common classification for photovoltaic waste [32,45,46,49].

Conversely, it is feasible to identify environmental trash that adversely affects the ecosystem. This includes greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, including CO₂, resulting from logistics and transportation involved in the movement of raw materials or final goods. For instance, the shipment of cells and solar panels from China, the predominant manufacturer, to foreign nations such as the United States [47]. Likewise, considerable emissions are recognized during the manufacturing phase, with estimations indicating that the production of a 1 m² solar panel in the United States can yield up to 120.3 kg of CO₂ [48]. Similarly, the literature concurs that manufacturing processes, especially the production of solar-grade silicon, entail substantial energy consumption and considerable greenhouse gas emissions [17,33,50,51]. Conversely, the leaching of metals from photovoltaic waste is acknowledged as a form of environmental waste, wherein the constituents of these metals dissolve into soil or water over time, resulting in ecosystem contamination [38,42].

Lastly, the literature identifies hazardous waste that negatively affects human health and comes from metals such as cadmium, lead, selenium, chromium, mercury, gallium, indium, among others [52,53]. Additionally, similar to environmental waste, the leaching process can generate components that affect human health and cause a high environmental cost [45,46,54].

Table 10. Types of waste in the supply chain.

Type of Waste	Description	References
Solid	Glass, metals, packaging, etc.	[26,38,41,42,46,48,53,54,55,56]
WEEE	Inverters, cables, batteries, etc.	[33,45,46,48,49]
Environmental	Manufacturing, transportation, or decommissioning waste that generates leaching, GHG emissions, etc.	[16,17,26,38,45,52,54,57]
Hazardous	Metals that threaten human health.	[45,46,50,52,53,54,56]

shows the summary of the types of waste identified in the literature, with their respective examples from the solar panel supply chain.

3.3.2. Types of Waste Management in the Solar Panel Supply Chain

Among the types of solar waste management currently used, four options can be identified. Firstly, there is the practice of dumping, which according to the literature is the most common and widespread practice and the one applied to most photovoltaic waste [56,58,59,60,61]. In some areas, dumping is illegal; however, due to the lack of regulations to guide the management of such waste, it continues to be implemented in practice [12,19,45,55]. Additionally, ref. [19] identifies the cross-border movement of solar waste to be dumped in foreign locations.

The second management option identified in current practices refers to the recycling of photovoltaic waste [12,19,42,56,60]. Refs. [19,45,46,53] agree that 10% or less of panels that have reached the end of their life cycle are recycled worldwide. Moreover, ref. [62] states that the recycling rate of WEEE in India is only 4%. This scenario reflects that, despite being a circular economy practice, the recycling rate of solar waste is low compared to the amount of waste generated.

In addition, the authors of [27] identify that one of the types of recycling currently carried out in most parts of the world is downcycling. This process involves crushing or techniques where lower quality and lower economic value products are obtained for easy sale. Similarly, scrapping or bulk recycling [18,63] is practiced, where recyclers obtain the easiest components to disassemble, such as aluminum and glass, and sell them without considering the loss of value that can be leveraged from the original product. Some publications recognize the European continent as the only one that practices high-value recycling, where through specific technologies and techniques, valuable and lower-value materials are obtained [17,49]. This practice is the most discussed in the publications, with 46.7% of the 45 documents contributing to this current management practice.

The third practice identified in the literature is reuse, which involves the second-hand market for solar panels or the use of panel materials as raw inputs for other industries. Furthermore, the literature highlights the transfer of end-of-life panels to other countries, primarily those in the developing world; [64] mentions concerns about this activity due to the insufficient waste management that can occur in these places. Similarly, some publications mention the use of individual waste from panels that can be used in industries such as steel [33,42,43,56].

Finally, the least mentioned practice in the literature refers to the incineration of photovoltaic waste associated with the burning of waste materials. The authors of [65] state that it is an activity generally occurring without controlling GHG emissions, indicating that it is an inadequate management of this waste.

Table 11. Types of waste management in the supply chain.

Management Type	Description	References
Dumping	Widely practiced worldwide.	[27,49,56,58,59,66]
Recycling	Only 10% of panels are recycled worldwide.	[12,17,19,26,37,42,46,49,53]
Reuse	Export of panels and second-hand market.	[12,17,19,37,45,53,54,56,58,63]
Incineration	Common practice without emission control.	[33,49,59]

identifies the different management practices currently carried out according to the literature.

3.3.3. Trends in Research and Waste Management in the Solar Panel Supply Chain

Among the research trends in waste management for the various links in the supply chain, it is evident that most studies (48.9% of the references) focus on managing waste at the end of the solar panels’ life cycle, specifically in the downstream link during the deactivation stage of the photovoltaic system, while only 11.1% of the sample focuses on managing waste generated in the upstream link, focusing on waste management from the cutting or sawing of ingots and wafers during the manufacturing stage; one study focuses on the utilization of packaging materials which are obtained from the logistical materials used to transport raw materials or finished products [50]. From the midstream and auxiliary stages, it is not possible to identify waste management trends in the research, which reflects a disproportion in the investigative approaches regarding the identification and management of waste in an integrated manner in the supply chain.

Table 12. Research trends in waste management in the supply chain.

Research Trend	Description	References	Percentage
Upstream	Research focused on waste in the manufacturing stage.	[19,42,43,59]	11.10%
Downstream	Research focused on waste at the end of the life cycle of panels.	[17,26,33,46,53,54,56,58,59,60,63,64]	48.90%

shows the classification of the references according to the research.

Finally, it is possible to identify the current management of photovoltaic waste by geographical location in the literature. With regard to the implementation of a regulation for the management of WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) from photovoltaic waste based on recycling techniques, Europe stands out, specifically with the presence of companies like PV Cycle and First [12,17,45,46,49,54]. However, ref. [17] specifies that circular economy techniques have not been implemented from a holistic perspective of the supply chain.

The European Union began enforcing the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive with the original directive (2002/96/EC), which was founded on the principle of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). This principle holds producers accountable for the end-of-life management of their products. To market solar panels within the EU, producers must cover the costs of collection and recycling, as well as provide consumers with information regarding waste treatment, collection points, final disposal procedures, and more. Moreover, producers are required to submit periodic reports detailing the number of panels sold, recovered, and treated.

The directive came into effect in 2003, establishing an initial annual collection target of 4 kg per inhabitant, along with recovery and recycling rate targets of 75% and 65%, respectively. However, due to rapid technological advancements and increased waste generation, the original directive was deemed insufficient. As a result, an updated version was introduced in 2012, maintaining the same recovery (75%) and recycling (65%) targets, but with an additional 5% increase mandated after three years.

Between 2016 and 2018, the directive was further strengthened, setting a collection target of 45% of equipment placed on the market, and increasing recovery and recycling rates to 80% and 70%, respectively. From 2018 onwards, the directive established a more ambitious goal: a collection rate of 65% of equipment placed on the market or 85% of waste generated, with reuse and recycling targets of 85% and 80%, respectively [12,39].

In this context, ref. [12] notes that Europe is currently the only region with large-scale photovoltaic (PV) panel recycling facilities. Furthermore, ref. [30] identifies First Solar and PV Cycle as the leading organizations in panel recycling across the continent. PV Cycle is an association comprising industry stakeholders and governmental bodies, while First Solar provides recycling services that recover approximately 90% of the glass and 90% of the semiconductor materials for the manufacture of new modules.

On the one hand, it is identified that the United States does not have centralized regulations for the management of photovoltaic waste [49,59,60]. On the other hand, refs. [46,59] mention that the states of California and Washington have implemented regulations regarding photovoltaic waste, but there is no national regulatory framework. Similarly, despite being the world’s leading manufacturer, China does not have an identified regulatory framework. Moreover, Japan, India, and Australia lack specific regulations for the management of this type of waste. In 2014, Australia banned the disposal of photovoltaic waste as a management practice, but did not develop regulations to guide stakeholders in taking optimal actions for the environment and human health [45].

Similarly, it is identified that developing countries resort to dumping practices and do not implement other management practices [54]; however, ref. [59] does not specify the countries the group is referring to. Likewise, refs. [49,59] mention that Latin America and the Caribbean do not present management initiatives, and in the same way, ref. [57] specifies that Brazil is in an incipient stage regarding solar waste management.

Additionally, locations such as the Middle East, Malaysia, Thailand, Jordan, Africa, and Bangladesh also do not have regulations for managing this type of waste and lack the necessary infrastructure to carry out these management processes, thus being in an incipient stage [17,32,56,58,67].

Figure 6 graphically shows the geographical locations where there is evidence of management and those where photovoltaic waste treatment practices are not identified. It is evident that a large number of countries around the world do not have practices for managing solar waste, and the treatment of this type of waste is unknown in a significant proportion of other countries.

A thorough examination of the existing literature was conducted to create Figure 6 delineating countries with and without waste management strategies. This entailed extracting segments that addressed the condition of waste management in certain nations, encompassing elements such as nascent development, legislative voids, infrastructural deficiencies, or the establishment of regulatory and institutional frameworks. The gathered data were subsequently categorized by the country. The European Union has emerged as the region with the most significant evidence of waste management programs.

Countries were categorized into three classifications based on this information. Countries in which the literature indicated solely emerging or preliminary actions—such as nascent initiatives or modest regulatory presence—were classified as lacking evidence of management. Conversely, entities with established legislation, government-driven programs, and proactive community involvement in trash management were categorized as demonstrating effective management. Finally, nations not referenced in the examined literature were classified as unknown.

This classification system facilitated the creation of a precise visual depiction of the worldwide waste management landscape, based on the empirical facts derived from the investigated sources.

3.3.4. What Opportunities Are There in the Waste Management of the Solar Panel Supply Chain?

To identify the opportunities in photovoltaic waste management, the publications that specify explicit benefits of carrying out a process with the waste generated from solar systems are selected, or alternatively, those references where action gaps are observed that can be addressed as opportunities.

The management opportunities identified in the literature were classified into 6 Rs (Recycle, Recover, Reuse, Reduce, Repair, and Refine), which can be associated with circular economy practices that contribute to the sustainability of the chain, which has mostly had a linear approach according to the current management as described in the previous section.

Table 13. Opportunities of each chain link.

R	Upstream	Dowstream	Auxiliary
R1: Recycle [17,26,37,38,53,58,60,62,64,69,70]	Recycling of silicon wafer cutting.	High-value recycling centers for valuable materials.	NA
		Recycling technology services.
		Disassembly, logistics, transportation, and recycling services.
		WEEE recycling plant.
R2: Recover [26,45,48,50,59,64,71]	NA	Use of waste materials as raw material for other industries.	NA
		Recovery of high-value materials.
		Recovery of BOS components for reintegration.
R3: Reuse [17,19,26,49,70,72]	Reuse of silicon cuttings in other industries.	Second-life panel market, resale, and installation.	NA
	Reuse of packaging products in soil treatment.
R4: Reduce [26,73])	NA	Maintenance services to extend the lifespan.	More efficient solar panel designs.
R5: Repair [17,49,70]	NA	Repair and control services.	Insurance companies for panel repair.
R6: Refine [26]	NA	NA	Services for handling logistical deficiencies.

highlights the opportunities identified in each of the chain links previously presented.

Recycle

Recycling presents a significant opportunity in photovoltaic (PV) waste management, facilitating the conversion of utilized resources into raw materials for new products. Premium recycling facilities enhance resource recovery by reclaiming commodities such as silicon, glass, silver, aluminum, and copper, thereby diminishing energy usage and emissions. Nevertheless, the emphasis has predominantly been on module recycling at the conclusion of its lifecycle, neglecting components like balance of system (BOS) elements. Strategies identified encompass the establishment of decentralized recycling facilities, provision of system deactivation services, and implementation of WEEE recycling plants [54].

Conversely, the production cost of a one-square-meter photovoltaic (PV) panel utilizing virgin materials is roughly USD 90, whereas the recycling cost of a panel is considerably lower—around USD 13.62 [44]. Furthermore, the recovery rate for high-value materials, including silicon, silver, and copper, is 85%, resulting in an estimated material value recovered per module of USD 15 to USD 16, according to 2021 pricing [15]. Besides the economic advantages, recycling provides environmental benefits, particularly in diminishing the ecological consequences linked to the exploitation of resources like aluminum [74].

Notwithstanding these prospective advantages, several authors contend that solar panel recycling is already unprofitable and does not yield an immediate financial reward. For example, ref. [54] contends that the economics of recycling are now disadvantageous. Likewise, ref. [57] emphasizes that the success of recycling enterprises is contingent upon appropriate timing, as initiating operations prematurely—when waste levels remain insufficient—can result in failure. However, the literature indicates that the collecting and recycling of solar panel trash may become economically feasible in the future as volumes rise and technologies advance [40]. The chosen literature does not explicitly consider the potential influence of recycling on the total cost of solar energy production.

Recover

Recovery pertains to the repurpose of photovoltaic waste products in other sectors. Although certain studies contend that recovered materials may fail to satisfy the stringent purity standards of the solar industry, there are prospects for the incorporation of aluminum in automotive manufacturing, the utilization of silicon waste in steel production, and the integration of ash into construction materials such as concrete or asphalt [58,64].

Reuse

Repurposing solar panels via second-hand markets or restoring deteriorated modules presents an alternative sustainability approach. This encompasses refurbishing panels for resale and installation, repurposing silicon waste in steel production, and utilizing packaging materials (e.g., wood and cardboard) for soil stabilization.

Reduce

Initiatives to reduce waste production in the photovoltaic supply chain emphasize enhancing product design. Enhanced solar panels can minimize material use, foster circularity, and prolong operational longevity [17,26,70].

Repair

Repair and maintenance services can enhance the longevity of solar panels, minimizing waste and promoting sustainability. Proposed options encompass panel repair and resale services, insurance policies for panel restoration, and maintenance programs to enhance photovoltaic system performance [17,34].

Refine

Enhancement opportunities concentrate on optimizing the logistical components of the supply chain. Inadequate handling, transportation, and storage result in premature damage to solar panels, hence exacerbating waste. Improving logistics management may reduce breakage and optimize material consumption [30,60].

These solutions demonstrate a significant emphasis on waste management throughout the downstream phase (end-of-life disposal). Extending initiatives to upstream and midstream phases may enhance sustainability within the solar panel production chain.

4. Discussion

The swift proliferation of solar photovoltaic (PV) technology has drastically altered the global energy paradigm, establishing itself as a pivotal force in the shift towards cleaner and more sustainable power generation. Nonetheless, although solar panels aid in diminishing greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels, the environmental and logistical issues associated with their waste handling remain predominantly unaddressed. This study emphasizes the importance of incorporating circular economy ideas into the solar panel supply chain to reduce waste accumulation and enhance resource efficiency.

A significant worry is the ineffective waste management procedures now implemented. The results reveal that merely 10% of utilized panels are recycled worldwide, with the primary disposal techniques being landfilling and cremation. This raises issues regarding long-term sustainability, as forecasts indicate that solar panel trash may accumulate to between 60 and 78 million tons by 2050. The absence of organized recycling programs, especially in areas beyond Europe, intensifies this problem, as numerous countries lack the requisite regulations, infrastructure, and incentives for effective waste management solutions.

The recognized prospects are structured according to the principles of the circular economy, with the objective of diminishing the linear characteristics of the existing solar panel supply chain. Nonetheless, despite its status as a global pioneer in sustainability projects, Europe continues to encounter obstacles in the comprehensive execution of circular economy principles. According to [20], there is a persistent ambiguity and inconsistency in the application of these concepts throughout the sector. The literature underscores the necessity for a holistic and cooperative strategy, including all stakeholders—manufacturers, retailers, and end users—to proficiently incorporate circular solutions [44]. The European Union’s WEEE Directive, founded on the notion of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), establishes a framework that may encourage collective accountability among various stakeholders.

However, beyond the EU, most areas lack robust rules to direct circular practices in PV sector. As indicated by [14,44], there exists a hesitance to implement stringent rules, partially due to apprehensions regarding the potential harm to the eco-friendly reputation of solar technology. Achieving genuine sustainability in the solar sector is intrinsically linked to circularity, which not only minimizes waste but also generates supplementary value within the supply chain.

The literature delineates multiple significant obstacles to the implementation of circularity within the photovoltaic supply chain. The challenges encompass the geographic distribution of materials, and the logistical intricacies of reintegrating recovered resources [52]; inadequate data on solar panel waste trajectories from production to disposal [R8]; insufficient collaboration between the solar and waste management industries [30]; a short-term economic perspective that obstructs investment in sustainable solutions [54]; and the restricted traceability of solar components throughout the product lifecycle [57].

The literature suggests several technical and strategic strategies to overcome these constraints. For example, ref. [75] proposes the establishment of collaborative, decentralized recycling facilities among adjacent nations to improve trash processing capabilities. Simultaneously, ref. [20] delineates corporate initiatives like product reinsertion, digitalization of the supply chain, the design of panels for enhanced recyclability, and optimized material recovery. Furthermore, ref. [35] presents the notion of industrial symbiosis, wherein solar panel waste is utilized as a resource by other sectors, thus optimizing material efficiency and reducing waste.

Several developing solutions are emphasized to enhance sustainability and optimize photovoltaic waste management. This encompasses data-driven lifetime monitoring, the utilization of material passports to record panel composition, and the implementation of QR codes or RFID tags for traceability [20,64]. These technologies enhance end-of-life management and facilitate design-for-circularity principles, exemplified by modular photovoltaic panels that streamline disassembly, reuse, and recycling.

In addition to technology, strong policy frameworks are crucial. The EU’s WEEE Directive continues to be a pivotal mechanism for implementing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), while initiatives such as Ghana’s Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) illustrate the increasing global focus on facilitating investments in photovoltaic waste management. The efficacy of these initiatives is frequently linked to the establishment of public–private partnerships (PPPs) that unite governments, manufacturers, and research institutes [30].

Ultimately, research highlights other facilitators of circularity, including by-product reintegration, high-purity material recovery, and the establishment of cohesive legislation, encompassing material-specific recycling objectives and standardized sustainability certification frameworks [20]. Industry-driven efforts, such as PV Cycle, and partnerships with academic institutions are actively promoting creative solutions for the recycling and reuse of panels. These solutions enhance the management of PV waste and fortify the foundation for a resilient circular economy in the solar energy sector.

5. Conclusions

The global energy transition, especially the swift growth of solar photovoltaic (PV) energy, is crucial for addressing climate change and minimizing the environmental effects linked to traditional energy production. PV technology is acknowledged for its ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance energy security; however, the waste produced during the lifecycle of solar panels presents a considerable challenge to its sustainability over time. Improper management strategies may lead to the accumulation of solar panel waste and the use of inadequate disposal methods, potentially undermining the environmental benefits associated with solar energy.

This study performs a literature review to analyze the solar panel supply chain structure, pinpointing essential stages, primary sources of waste generation, existing management practices, and possible areas for enhancement. The analysis indicates that the supply chain comprises four interrelated segments: upstream, midstream, downstream, and auxiliary. Each segment plays a distinct role in the production, installation, operation, and decommissioning of photovoltaic systems. These activities produce various waste streams, such as solid waste, hazardous materials, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), and environmental pollutants, each necessitating specific management strategies.

The existing end-of-life strategies for solar panels, namely landfilling and incineration, are insufficient and unsustainable. Despite the global increase in solar energy deployment, approximately 10% of decommissioned panels are recycled, highlighting a considerable deficiency in the sector’s capacity to recover and reuse valuable materials. This shortfall highlights the necessity for enhanced regulatory frameworks, greater investment in recycling infrastructure, and technological innovation to advance effective circular economy practices in the solar panel industry.

The paper emphasizes that although Europe excels in the establishment of legal frameworks and advanced recycling technologies, other regions—especially Latin America, Africa, and certain areas of Asia—substantially behind in the adoption of sustainable waste management methods. The lack of stringent policies, economic incentives, and technological infrastructure in these areas leads to ineffective disposal and restricted recycling initiatives. This disparity highlights the necessity for global cooperation, knowledge-sharing programs, and governmental measures to guarantee the responsible handling of solar waste worldwide.

The study also recognizes several potential to enhance waste management in the solar panel supply chain, along with the 6R principles of the circular economy: Recycle, Recover, Reduce, Repair, and Refine. These strategies provide a framework for shifting from a linear supply chain model—characterized by the use and disposal of materials—to a circular one that prioritizes resource recovery, product durability, and waste reduction. Implementing these measures can produce numerous advantages, such as minimizing raw material extraction, reducing energy usage, cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and creating economic opportunities through secondary markets for recycled and refurbished components.

The literature indicates that altering the composition of solar panels during production—focused on minimizing material consumption—and designing modules with deactivation and circularity considerations can substantially diminish waste creation from the beginning of the supply chain. This method adheres to eco-design principles, advocating for the creation of solar panels that facilitate dismantling, recycling, and repurposing after their operational lifespan. By integrating these design ideas, manufacturers may enhance the sustainability and efficiency of the product lifetime.

Moreover, innovations in material recovery technology, especially in high-value recycling and urban mining, are improving the extraction of essential materials like silicon, silver, and aluminum from decommissioned panels. These improvements enhance the economic value of recovered components while mitigating the environmental effect linked to raw material extraction, so facilitating the transition to a more circular and sustainable solar energy industry [76].

Furthermore, financial and policy incentives, like Extended Producer Responsibility programs, subsidies for recycling infrastructure, and more stringent disposal restrictions, can significantly facilitate the adoption of sustainable waste management techniques. Governments, industry stakeholders, and research institutions must collaborate to create comprehensive frameworks that incentivize investment in recycling technologies, foster innovation in waste management, and advance sustainable business models.

The fast proliferation of photovoltaic energy globally underscores the critical need to reduce solar panel waste. If not properly handled, forecasts suggest that solar panel trash may accumulate to between 60 and 78 million tons by 2050, potentially resulting in significant environmental repercussions. Nevertheless, via proactive waste management measures, the sector may transition towards a more sustainable future, guaranteeing that solar energy remains a genuinely green solution.

6. Future Potential Research Directions

Subsequent studies should concentrate on building complete waste management models that incorporate economic, environmental, and social factors. The domains for additional investigation encompass the following:

• Enhancing High-Value Recycling Technologies: Examining efficient and economical techniques for the extraction and reprocessing of valuable materials from retired solar panels.
• Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: Assessing the efficacy of current policies across various locations and recommending standardized international regulations for the management of solar panel trash.
• Innovative Commercial Models: Investigating circular economy-oriented commercial ideas, including solar panel leasing, buyback initiatives, and second-life applications for utilized photovoltaic modules.
• Technological Advancements in Eco-Design: Promoting the creation of modular and recyclable panel designs that enable simpler disassembly and material retrieval.
• Lifecycle Assessments: Performing thorough environmental impact evaluations to compare various waste management scenarios and determine the most sustainable alternatives.
• Socioeconomic Implications: Evaluating the employment generation potential and economic advantages of a robust solar waste treatment sector, especially in developing economies.
• Economic Impacts: determining the costs of recycling, how they impact energy production, and the costs of the supply chain.
• By focusing on these aspects, researchers and industry leaders may advance the establishment of a genuinely sustainable solar energy sector, guaranteeing that the advantages of photovoltaics are not undermined by their enduring waste issues. The shift to a circular economy model in solar energy will diminish environmental impacts and generate new economic opportunities, enhancing the industry’s resilience and sustainability in the future.