Exploring the Green Horizon: Recent Research on Renewable Energy in Poland—A Review

Abstract

This paper identifies and examines the latest research on renewable energy in Poland, reviewing articles published between 2021 and 2023 indexed in the Scopus database. It analyzes 124 papers, categorizing them into 11 thematic areas which include (1) energy production, (2) energy consumption, (3) energy policy, (4) sustainable development activities, (5) technology and engineering, (6) energy storage, (7) powering vehicles, (8) awareness and attitude regarding energy, (9) finances and investments, (10) emission, and (11) other. The main objective was to analyze the state of the current research on renewables in Poland. The results highlight significant progress in renewable energy capacity, particularly in wind and solar power, driven by national policies, EU funding, and growing public support. The analysis also reveals persistent challenges related to technology, infrastructure, and policy. The authors critically evaluate the research’s relevance to Poland’s energy sector and globally. They also refer to issue of non-renewable energy sources, which, despite the development of the RES sector, still play a dominant role in the Polish energy economy. Due to this, the article not only describes the state of knowledge, but also formulates conclusions on the real needs and opportunities for the further development of energy in Poland.

1. Introduction

The transition toward renewable energy is critical to global efforts to combat climate change and ensure sustainable development. Poland, with its historical dependence on coal and other fossil fuels, is trying to participate in this energy transition. The topic of energy transformation is highly complex for Poland, as it bases its energy production on fossil fuels. Poland has natural deposits of hard coal and lignite and therefore using these raw materials for energy production and then consumption seems natural. Referring to energy in Poland, historically hard coal was the basis of the Polish national energy sector. On the other hand, this type of energy causes a lot of harm to the environment and people. Then, there are many issues related to technology, infrastructure, and policy. The topic of energy in Poland is complicated, complex, and for many social groups, controversial. Despite all the problems, Poland’s energy landscape has been evolving, driven by both national policies and international commitments, such as the climate and energy framework of the European Union (EU). In recent years, Poland has made progress in expanding solar and wind energy, driven by EU policies, national incentives, and increasing public awareness. To support this, Figure 1 presents the installed capacity of photovoltaics and wind turbines in Poland for a selected period 2014–2024.

According to the Forum Energii’s data [1], coal remained the dominant source of electricity in Poland, accounting for 60.5% of the total production in 2023. However, its share continues to decline as the country transitions toward cleaner energy sources. Renewable energy sources (RESs) significantly grow, contributing around 27% of total electricity generation. Figure 2 shows the production of energy from renewable sources in Poland in 2023 [2]. Meanwhile, natural gas played a stable role, providing approximately 10% of Poland’s electricity generation [3]. Poland aims to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, aligning with the climate goals of the European Union. Therefore, it must be aware of the share of renewable energy sources and create initiatives and opportunities to focus on them.

Figure 1. Installed capacity of photovoltaic and wind turbines in Poland [authors’ own work based on PSE data [4]].

Figure 1. Installed capacity of photovoltaic and wind turbines in Poland [authors’ own work based on PSE data [4]].

Figure 2. Distribution of renewable energy sources in Poland in 2023 [2].

Figure 2. Distribution of renewable energy sources in Poland in 2023 [2].

Government incentives and EU funding have played crucial roles in promoting the development and adoption of renewable technologies. Public awareness and support for renewable energy have also been growing, signaling a positive shift toward a more sustainable energy future in Poland. Therefore, in practice and theory, many solutions related to renewable energy sources are being developed to minimize the impact of human activity on the environment. However, it should be mentioned that the topic of renewable sources is very broad; it may concern both consumption, production, technology, policy, but also consumer preferences, opinions, as well as environmental awareness and approach to the topic of energy. All these issues are reflected in the increasing number of scientific publications focused on various aspects of renewable energy. Therefore, the authors of this paper decided to review the literature on the latest research on renewable energy in Poland.

This review paper identifies and examines the latest research, based on papers published from 2021 to 2023 and indexed on the Scopus database to offer insights into the progress made and the challenges that remain in Poland’s renewable energy sector. This paper can serve as a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners engaged in the energy sector.

The authors set the objectives of the research. The main objectives of this review paper are the following:

• O₁: To analyze the state of current research on renewables in Poland.
• O₂: To identify and analyze scientific trends related to different sources of renewable energy in Poland.
• O₃: To examine methodologies, methods, and technologies in the research on renewable energy in Poland.
• O₄: To identify and present up-to-date findings, results, and implications of the research on renewable energy in Poland.
• O₅: To highlight the gaps and areas of renewables in Poland that require further investigation and development.
• O₆: To contribute to the knowledge base on renewable energy research by providing a structured and detailed review that researchers, policymakers, and practitioners can refer to.

The subsequent sections of this paper are structured as follows: Section 2 presents the materials and methods used for data collection and analysis. Section 3, Section 4, Section 5, Section 6, Section 7 and Section 8 present the results of the literature analysis divided into thematic sections. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the key findings and offers recommendations for future research directions in Poland’s renewable energy sector.

2. Materials and Methods

This paper presents a review of the literature on the latest research on renewable energy in Poland. To accomplish this, the authors first had to decide on the scientific database that they would use to analyze the articles. They chose to search for the latest articles in the Scopus database. The authors used search engines on the Scopus website. Then, they decided on the keywords that would be used for the search. The authors selected the following two keywords:

• “renewable”;
• “Poland”.

These keywords were added to the search so that the papers found contained both keywords.

The authors decided to analyze all published papers in three years between 2021 and 2023. Therefore, they searched for articles and downloaded the most important data about them, that is, title, authors, journal, and year. Data collection was carried out on 26 March 2024. The search formula was as follows:

KEY (“renewable”) AND KEY (“Poland”) AND PUBYEAR > 2020 AND PUBYEAR < 2024

Then, in the next days, the authors placed the data in an Excel spreadsheet and expanded them with information about the keywords and links to websites. Figure 3 shows a fragment of an Excel spreadsheet with data about the papers. The authors then downloaded the abstracts and/or full versions (open access) of each article. In total, 124 papers were found. There were 120 research articles and only 4 review articles.

After reviewing every paper, the authors divided these 124 publications into thematic parts, providing a comprehensive categorization that reflects the diversity of research in the field. This approach allowed for a clearer understanding of trends within the body of literature, facilitating more targeted analysis and discussion. There are 11 parts, including the following:

• Energy production;
• Energy consumption;
• Energy policy;
• Sustainable development activities;
• Technology and engineering;
• Energy storage;
• Powering vehicles;
• Awareness and attitude regarding energy;
• Finances and investments;
• Emission;
• Other.

This division was made to show the comprehensive and multidimensional nature of renewable energy research in Poland. This research encompasses technical, economic, social, and environmental aspects. Grouping papers into these 11 categories allows for a clearer understanding of key research trends, highlighting both technological advancements (e.g., energy production, storage, and engineering) and broader systemic factors (e.g., policy, finances, and public awareness). Such a classification ensures a holistic approach to analyzing Poland’s energy transition, facilitating discussions on achievements, challenges, and opportunities in each area.

To ensure the representativeness of the selected papers, the authors decided to lean on one of the greatest scientific database: Scopus. They reviewed all papers published in the mentioned years to provide reliable and unbiased analysis. At the end, the authors read, analyzed, and critically commented each paper. Moreover, another factor that provides representativeness is broad keywords (“renewable” and “Poland”). By addressing these aspects, the study maintains objectivity and improves the reliability of its findings.

Figure 4 shows a graph that presents the thematic categories into which the 124 articles were divided. It illustrates the number of articles in each thematic category. After categorizing, the authors conducted an analysis of each article, presenting the results in subsequent chapters. In this paper, the analyzed articles are presented in six subsequent chapters, named as follows:

• Research on energy production and consumption (33 papers).
• Research on energy policy and activities (16 + 9 = 25 papers).
• Research on technological aspects in the context of energy (12 + 9 + 3 = 24 papers).
• Research on awareness and attitudes regarding energy issues (16 papers).
• Research on finances and investments in the energy sector (13 papers).
• Research on emissions (11 papers).

It should also be mentioned that only two articles did not fit thematically with the others and thus were placed in the “Other” section. These are a very detailed paper on hydrocarbon in biochar [7] and a general paper on geothermal topics in the research of the Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Science (MEERI PAS) [8]. The remaining 122 papers are described in chapters from 3 to 8.

As data analysis showed, in 2021 the Scopus database indexed 41 articles with the keywords “Poland” and “renewable”. In 2022, there were 36 articles, and in 2023, 47 articles. The data are presented in Figure 5.

3. Research on Energy Production and Consumption

3.1. Energy Production

The renewable energy sector is growing rapidly and is one of the fastest growing industries globally because climate change is currently a major issue affecting many countries environmentally, socially, economically, and politically [9]. Implementing development policy objectives in renewable energy will enhance socioeconomic growth dynamics and help to achieve national and EU policy goals. Poland has advantages and different resources for energy production. Despite the fact that Poland has been dependent on fossil fuels for years, more and more research and solutions refer to renewable energy production as Poland’s energy mix transforms to clean energy [10].

Biomass is one of the oldest and most common sources of renewable energy, derived from organic materials such as food scraps, agricultural waste, forest residues, and industrial byproducts. When burned, it releases CO2, but this is roughly equal to the amount absorbed by plants during their growth, making it a carbon-neutral energy source. [11]. Solid biomass and biogas together can meet the thermal energy needs of some regions of Poland. For example, the Pomeranian Voivodeship leads in the use of biogas production potential, while the Podlaskie Voivodeship consistently ranks lowest in the country, both in 2012 and 2018 [12]. Bioethanol production has significant potential within Poland’s bioenergy sector; there is an immediate need for legislative action to improve motivation, ambition, and stronger commitment to achieving sustainable transport goals in the country [13]. When it comes to the potential use of biomass in Poland, some research is focused on the use of stumpwood [14] and biomass fly ash [15].

Also, among renewable energy technologies in Poland, the most significant growth is seen in PV installations, particularly micro-installations, typically up to 10 kWp. The rise in micro-PV installations is attributed to subsidies provided through government programs such as “My Electricity”, “Czyste Powietrze”, “Energia Plus”, “Prosument”, or “Agroenergia” (specifically for farmers). These programs offer subsidies for the purchase and installation of new PV panels [16]. There is also research on microinverter photovoltaic micro-installations [17].

The generation of electricity from wind energy is also one of the most popular RES technologies in Poland and Europe/the world. The West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland has the ability to entirely fulfill its energy requirements from its own renewable energy sources. Additionally, it has the potential to become an energy exporter to neighboring regions. The West Pomeranian Voivodeship boasts a vast and untapped potential for wind energy generation [5].

In Baltic Sea conditions, offshore wind has a greater capacity than onshore wind. The offshore wind typically has a capacity factor of 30.1%, while the offshore wind has a potential capacity factor of 55.6%, demonstrating a clear advantage for the offshore wind over the onshore [18]. Poland has a significant offshore wind potential, estimated at around 28 GW, mainly in the Baltic Sea. Currently, the country has ambitious plans to develop offshore wind farms, with the Polish Offshore Wind Act supporting the construction of up to 11 GW of offshore capacity by 2040. Balancing offshore wind farm (OWF) electricity generation is vital to ensure uninterrupted supply and maximize profit from trading [19].

Poland is working to adjust its energy sources in line with the objectives of the European Green Deal. Renewable energy sources in maximum power capacity has risen from 5% in 2009 to 20% in 2020 in Poland [20]. More energy efficient design recommendations are required for turbines within wastewater treatment and hydropower plants to minimize their environmental footprint [21]. The goal of significantly reducing CO₂ emissions requires a transition away from fossil fuels [22]. The shift from fossil fuels is crucial due to climate concerns and the increasing reliance on imports in Poland [23]. Utilizing renewable methanol enables the achievement of goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting renewable energy sources, and improving the efficiency of the energy storage system efficiency. Renewable methanol can be derived from four main sources: biomass, municipal waste, industrial waste, and carbon dioxide. Kotowicz and Brzeczek suggested three solutions to enhance the efficiency of production and purification installations for renewable methanol: compressing CO₂ at the Carbon Capture Storage (CCS) power plant, substituting the throttle valve with an expander, and replacing the heat exchanger with an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) module. Implementing all three solutions simultaneously resulted in an efficiency of 72.61% [24].

Small hydropower plants are among the most significant renewable energy sources that do not degrade or consume natural resources. The development of their technology is particularly crucial as the climate changes, with the risk of failing to ensure energy security [25]. The decrease in the amount of electricity produced by hydropower plants in Poland shows that not enough investment has been made to use the existing hydropower potential [26]. The total technical potential for installing wave energy converters along the Polish coast exceeds the maximum power output of the largest coal power plant in Poland [27].

When it comes to indicating the social and economic factors that affect the development of the renewable energy production industry in Poland, it can be concluded that the development of the renewable energy sector will greatly depend on three main factors: EU decisions impacting the sector’s development (34.8% share), Polish legislation affecting the sector (24.0% share), and the prices and availability of conventional energy sources (20.3% share). The other two factors, regional policies on ecology and environmental awareness, have had minimal impact on the development of the sector in the country, with a combined share of 20.9% [28].

Finally, the rules for the taxation of electricity generation facilities in Poland are theoretically quite clear. Only the construction components of these facilities are taxed, whereas equipment directly utilized for energy generation is not taxed. However, some problems may still arise. The first challenge is deciding if a facility should be taxed as a building or structure, and if equipment inside should also be taxed. The second issue involves land taxation rules. The third and most significant financial problem is determining if an object is taxable and if so, whether taxation applies to the entire object or just its construction part [29].

Based on the reviewed papers it can be said that research has already been conducted on renewable energy technologies in Poland, including the use of biomass, PV installations, wind energy, and hydropower. Studies analyze and discuss social, economic, and legislative factors that affect the development of the renewable energy sector in Poland. Photovoltaic installations compared to coal production, which produce electricity, significantly reduce carbon emissions and environmental impact, making them a preferable option. Due to this fact, there should be more papers presenting economic and environmental analysis on energy production using PV infrastructure. Expanding PV infrastructure and improving energy storage solutions are crucial steps to reduce Poland’s dependence on coal. Furthermore, to maximize the potential of biomass energy, it is essential to implement better waste management practices, such as the separation of organic waste from general trash. This approach would improve the efficiency of biomass production and contribute to a more sustainable energy system. In the area of biomass, it would be worth considering the effectiveness of energy production compared to other sources of energy for individual households.

Future research could also focus on addressing gaps such as underuse of the hydroelectric potential. Poland in recent years has developed solar energy; however, wind and hydropower are still an area for improvement and development in the context of energy production. It is also recommended to conduct a more comprehensive analysis of wave energy along the Polish coast. In addition to energy production, further exploration is also needed to optimize renewable energy storage solutions. Research—both theoretical and practical—should also be a concern for reconstruction and expansion of the entire energy sector in Poland. It should be noted that Poland is mainly based on hard coal and lignite. Changing the way energy is produced, i.e., transforming toward green sources such as solar panels, wind energy, or water energy, is associated with enormous technical challenges, including the need to rebuild and modernize infrastructure, as well as changes in legal regulations. This process is particularly complicated in the case of Poland, which requires additional analyses and research. Articles presenting in-depth analyses and proposing solutions regarding technological changes in energy production are necessary to facilitate this difficult but necessary process of energy transformation. Such articles, supported by real data, would help decision-makers, policymakers, and leaders make decisions that are so important for the Polish energy sector.

3.2. Energy Consumption

The authors of paper [30] highlight the benefits of renewable energy sources compared to fossil fuels. They discuss the rising demand for energy these days. In many homes in Poland, the main source of heat and fuel is natural gas, which releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases when burned. To use less heat and fuel, households can take steps such as improving insulation, upgrading heating systems, and using more efficient appliances. Using better insulation helps prevent heat from escaping through walls, windows, and roofs. This means that less fuel is needed to heat the home, leading to energy savings and lower costs. In EU households, there is a trend of using less hard coal and more natural gas, but the change is especially notable in Poland. This shift from hard coal to natural gas is due to factors such as rising household incomes, changing demographics, the availability and affordability of natural gas, and concerns about the environment. According to the study, emission reduction strategies can be grouped into two main categories. The first category involves improving the energy efficiency of buildings with better insulation. The second category is about reducing the use of high-carbon energy sources [31].

Renewable energy sources are increasingly popular because energy from fossil fuels is expensive and limited by environmental regulations, and there is a need to become less dependent on external energy sources. This refers mainly to Poland, which depends on fossil fuels and faces a difficult time in energy transformation. The European Union also uses legal measures to push countries to increase the percentage of renewable energy in their energy mixes. In the European Union, including in Poland, the share of renewable energy is increasing [32]. Due to the conflict in Ukraine, the USA, the UK, and Canada have taken steps to gradually stop using energy from Russia. Europe’s main goal is to reduce its reliance on fossil fuel imports from Russia and achieve energy independence from Russian fossil fuels by 2030. However, stopping the supply of Russian gas, oil, and coal could lead to a difficult and challenging transition period for Europe. If managed properly, these disruptions can remain temporary. Poland, historically dependent on Russian fossil fuels, has accelerated its energy diversification efforts by expanding LNG imports, increasing domestic coal use as a short-term measure, and investing in renewable energy and nuclear power. The country is also developing infrastructure projects such as the Baltic Pipe to secure alternative gas supplies from Norway [33]. When it comes to climate change, it causes more extreme weather events, such as heat waves, and overall temperatures are rising due to global warming. This is leading to a greater need for air conditioning and other cooling equipment in Europe. As a result, national electricity consumption is expected to increase and achieving energy independence is clearly essential. In Poland, rising temperatures have already led to increased electricity demand during the summer months, putting additional pressure on an energy system still heavily dependent on coal, highlighting the urgent need for the expansion and modernization of renewable energy and grid [34].

The relationship between bioenergy consumption and the ecological footprint in the top 10 bioenergy-consuming European countries (Germany, France, Austria, Spain, UK, Sweden, Portugal, Italy, Finland, and Poland) from 1991 to 2019 shows that many European economies rely heavily on fossil fuels for production. Transitioning to renewable energy is limited in such production systems. Therefore, increasing the use of renewable energy sources in industry could help mitigate the harmful environmental impacts of economic growth. Regulations that promote clean bioenergy as an alternative to traditional energy could lead to more jobs, improved energy security, stronger export sectors, faster economic growth, and, consequently, greater environmental benefits. Since bioenergy is often used in households, governments might find it easier to promote it at the local level. Subsidies to encourage the use of domestic biomass could also support this transition. However, it is crucial to remember that bioenergy production can harm ecosystems, as it often relies on resources like forests, agricultural land, and wood. Excessive extraction can lead to indirect or direct changes in land use changes and deforestation. Efforts to promote bioenergy should consider these environmental risks and implement measures to manage them responsibly. In Poland, bioenergy plays a key role in the mix of renewable energy, particularly through biomass combustion for heating, but concerns remain about sustainable sourcing and the impact of large-scale biomass use on forest resources [35].

Some factors affect the consumption of renewable energy. During the pandemic, cafes and restaurants had the highest self-consumption rate of solar energy, with 52% of the electricity produced by their solar panels being used on-site [36]. In another context, Mukhtarov, Aliyev, Borowski, and Disli conducted a study that explores how institutional quality, income, CO₂ emissions, and trade openness affect the consumption of renewable energy in Poland. The study found that trade openness did not have a significant impact on the use of renewable energy in Poland. The policy recommendations derived from this study are as follows [37]:

• Offer more incentives, such as grants, tax breaks, and subsidies, to encourage investment in renewable energy projects in Poland.
• Update laws to make renewable energy projects easier to start. This means simplifying the approval process and setting clear technical rules.
• Keep decisions about renewable energy clear and open, which can build trust among all involved.
• The European Union should make active efforts regarding climate change and renewable energy, as this can lead to the sharing of knowledge, money, and technology.
• Modernize the energy infrastructure to handle more renewable energy. This includes smart grid technology to better manage energy flow and demand.

Various programs and installations are also evaluated to see their efficiency and economic viability. Olczak et al. analyzed “My Electricity Program”, their research has shown that subsidies for renewable energy are valid, but some mechanisms do not work well, and issues exist with the way funds are distributed. Under the “My Electricity” program, which had two editions up to 1 August 2020, more than 64,000 solar photovoltaic (PV) micro-installations were set up, with an average capacity of about 5.7 kWp. The installed total PV capacity was 367.1 MWp, with the first edition accounting for 159.3 MWp and the second edition 207.8 MWp. The second edition of the “My Electricity” program managed financial resources more effectively than the first. In the first edition, about 7.60% of the funds were not used efficiently, but this dropped to 3.88% in the second edition. Misallocations were more common in regions with a lower average income and fewer households [38].

Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. conducted an economic analysis to assess the payback period for a heat pump that works in conjunction with a photovoltaic installation in a single-family house in Poland. This study aimed to determine how long it would take for the energy savings to cover the initial investment in the system. The analysis showed that the total cost could be recouped in 11 years and 6 months if financed with a combination of personal funds, a “My Electricity” subsidy, and a thermo-modernization tax break. However, if completely funded with personal resources, the repayment period would be 13 years and 3 months [39].

Last but not least, it must be mentioned that energy production and consumption in a given country requires also urgent international policy cooperation to encourage different economies to look for policies that can provide the worldwide success of energy transformation [40].

Existing research, presented above, has focused on Poland’s transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy, the effectiveness of subsidy programs like “My Electricity”, and the integration of technologies such as solar and heat pumps into households. Studies have also examined factors such as energy efficiency and bioenergy consumption.

Future research should explore the long-term sustainability and environmental impact of individual renewables as a source of energy. Additionally, more detailed analysis is needed on the economic aspects related to photovoltaics for households and institutions as PV in Poland found a particular interest.

On the other hand, many households’ dependence on natural gas shows the need for enhanced energy efficiency measures, such as improved insulation and more efficient appliances. The same applies to households that burn coal in furnaces. It is worth noting that the ongoing geopolitical situation, and the conflict in Ukraine, have emphasized the urgency for Europe, including Poland, to reduce its dependence on Russian energy sources. Given the strategic tensions that involve Russia, China, and Western nations, this energy change is not only an environmental necessity but also a political necessity.

Future research should focus on analyzing the impact of new technologies on energy consumption, such as smart grids and energy management systems in households and industries. An important area to investigate is also the impact of the growing demand for electricity related to the transformation of transport in response to climate change. There is also a need for further research on the optimization of renewable energy use in the context of regional differences in availability and costs.

4. Research on Energy Policy and Activities

4.1. Energy Policy

The use of renewable energy and methods vary by country and even region. These differences are influenced by the resources available in different countries and the policies and bureaucratic steps that the governments determine. These policies affect the efficiency and effectiveness of renewable energy resources and their use, but not solely by policies directly related to the energy field; policies in different areas can also impact the state of renewable energy production, such as environmental goals and regulations [41]. A survey was conducted to determine the vision of the development of RE in the Mazowieckie Voivodeship (Poland). Two-thirds of the participants suggest that the law in Poland should be different—the obligations should be simplified so there would be less bureaucracy. Energy investors face many difficulties, including documents and permits that can be liquidated or reduced [42]. Perhaps due to the centralized decision-making process within the country’s energy system, with the government playing the predominant role as the primary actor in the energy sector [43].

Many countries, including Poland, have recently adjusted their energy mix. This change is primarily driven by the climate policy of the European Union climate policy, which requires the replacement of coal-fired power plants with renewable energy sources [44]. An important consideration for the European energy transition is determining which types of renewable energy technologies will be central to this transition. The first example, offshore wind power, as a renewable energy source, reduces reliance on traditional fossil fuels and decreases dependence on foreign hydrocarbon supplies. The development of offshore wind farms in the Baltic Sea will influence energy balance of the region, especially considering the increasing geopolitical tensions between NATO, Russia, and the EU [45]. In the second example, the profile of the prosumer indicates that photovoltaics at home appeal most to the poorest households in rural municipalities, regions with the highest unemployment rates, and citizens approaching retirement age [46]. Finally, agriculture will remain crucial in achieving the goals of renewable energy. In addition to providing raw materials, rural areas can serve as locations for processing energy resources, often leading to the creation of local biomass energy suppliers. Straw and biogas production in agricultural biogas plants are two solutions with significant energy production potentials [47]. Controlling the number of energy crops available for biogas production is essential to maintain biogas profitability while preventing imbalances in the agricultural market related to feedstock prices and land demand [48].

In addition to changes in the energy mix, the energy crisis in Europe in 2022 has caused countries to change their views on energy policy and energy security. For example, EU countries have taken action due to the energy crisis. Germany reduced its gas consumption and suggested this policy as a short-term strategy in the EU. The neighboring countries and the memberships that these countries hold, such as the EU, influence their energy policies. Poland and Germany share a border and are members of the EU, which causes reliance between them in the energy area. Despite this, as members, they can also influence the shaping of the EU principles [49]. Additionally, sustainable energy development is currently a top priority in European energy and climate change policies. Its goal is to address critical energy challenges throughout the EU, including reducing dependence on energy imports, improving energy security, and meeting targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and protect the environment [50]. The state authorities of Poland should prioritize critical actions for sustainable energy development. Actions include maximizing the utilization of Poland’s renewable energy resources, conserving energy, reducing final energy demand, gradually transitioning electricity production from coal to renewable energy sources, and shifting heat production from fossil fuels to RESs [51]. Therefore, the prioritization of wind energy development in Poland arises from its climate and energy commitments and the current geopolitical landscape. Rising electricity prices, worsened by higher CO₂ emission allowance fees, highlight the importance of advancing wind energy solutions. However, regulatory changes, such as the increase in distances between turbines and residential areas since 2016, have slowed progress. Efforts are underway to update these regulations and policies and expand offshore wind energy initiatives [52].

Sufficient communication between states, individuals, and households is crucial for energy efficiency, costs, and the living conditions of individuals. Using RESs to reduce energy intensity directly lowers energy costs. The analyses show insufficient information in the study area to demonstrate how the energy-saving policies in Poland and Slovakia impact the individual welfare of their populations [53]. The critical point in Poland’s energy transition by 2040, along with energy efficiency, is that transitioning to a low-carbon energy system will only be feasible if new development opportunities are initially offered to the most vulnerable communities and regions. Without this support, many areas will face increasing economic challenges and high unemployment rates [54]. The analysis of the 293 LAG’s (Local Action Group) strategies of many regions in Poland has shown that local stakeholders, when deciding on their approach, should have considered the importance of climate change and ignored issues covering energy saving. The authors confirmed that in 2014–2015, local stakeholders needed to focus more on intensively supporting renewable energy in rural areas, instead prioritizing entrepreneurship, social infrastructure, tourism, and recreation instead [55]. Most Polish Cittaslow (Association) municipalities implement renewable energy in their local development strategies. However, it is not a priority for them. These municipalities are primarily located in some of the poorest parts of Poland and the European Union, where they face numerous challenging social and economic issues typical of peripheral areas. The local authorities of Poland must address many of these pressing problems while implementing renewable energy [56].

Commenting on the review of the papers above, it can be said that the Polish government should be aware of and prioritize renewable energy opportunities, enacting laws to increase the advantage of its sustainable energy capacity. Complicated bureaucracy and steps must be simplified for all segments of the population. For example, some farmers or people with valuable land in potential regions may not attempt to build wind turbines or other renewable energy facilities due to complicated bureaucracy and permissions. The government should offer more programs that convince and encourage given groups to invest and should also be more positive about RESs and the changes associated with its use and implementation. Furthermore, policies should support increasing subsidies for renewable energy initiatives in different types of green energy.

4.2. Sustainable Development Energy Activities

The efforts of EU countries to transition to renewable energy are essential. Although the Earth’s energy reserves grow with technological advancements, pollution increases due to fossil fuel use, which generates significant emissions. Diversifying the energy market to renewable sources is critical to reducing environmental impact and resource depletion. At the current rate of fossil fuel consumption, the world’s reserves will last approximately 50 years for petroleum, 52.8 years for natural gas, and 153 years for coal. Therefore, it is important to strive to conserve, limit, innovate, or learn to live without these polluting resources [57]. In the EU, energy transformation is guided by formal legal and institutional frameworks. Member states must follow the Community Energy Strategy outlined in the European Green Deal. The EU aims for all member states to achieve climate-neutral, zero-emission economies by 2050. The transition will primarily involve diversification of energy sources, with renewable energy sources playing a pivotal role. Despite the varied green energy potential across regions in the EU, the move toward RESs is justified at the regional level, indicating that all member states can meet the objectives of the EU Green Deal [58].

The aim is to support renewable alternatives and enhance sustainability in the renewable sector among the leading economic countries that can improve their sustainability in RE by focusing on critical areas such as strengthening institutional frameworks, increasing the proportion of renewable energy, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels, addressing social and economic factors, and improving environmental performance. The findings show that Sweden, Belgium, Ireland, France, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Poland, and Italy rank from the most advanced to the least sustainable countries, respectively. Each country can develop customized strategies for sustainability in renewables, including establishing technological pathways, financial planning, policy frameworks, participating in environmental competitions, and prioritizing sustainability; countries can further their commitment to environmental responsibility and innovation [59]. For example, announcements about architectural competitions in Poland, other European countries, the United States, and Canada are increasingly listing sustainability as a mandatory criterion [60].

The European Commission’s National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) reports provide a brief overview of the main plans of the Visegrád countries (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary) to increase the share of renewable energy consumption by 2030. Among the V4 countries, Hungary shows the highest potential for solar energy based on irradiation and temperature profiling. The southern region of Hungary, in particular, has shown better results, making it a promising site for future solar parks. In the case of Poland, there is an active focus on the prospects of decarbonization. Wind energy can potentially drive growth in renewable energy use within the country’s energy sector [61]. Large state-owned companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange face ambitious goals to transform Poland’s energy profile into a more environmentally friendly one by shifting from coal to cleaner, more accessible, and ultimately cheaper energy sources. It has become necessary to analyze the progress made by the Polish energy sector in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and securing energy through sound business practices. Although the authors have noted significant philanthropic activities by energy companies, many good practices in clean and accessible renewable energy are inadequate and insufficient to meet EU climate policy objectives. Despite increasing reports and good practices, progress still needs improvement [62]. While examining the environmental behaviors of companies outside the energy sector, it can be claimed that the primary motivation for companies to implement measures is the necessity to comply with legal provisions regarding environmental protection. The authors of the research article examined food processing companies. The companies should focus on measures to enhance environmental performance by developing and maximizing potential areas for implementing environmental measures and looking for solutions to further reduce atmospheric pollution by installing gas boilers and filters to minimize pollutants emissions [63]. Environmental measures are also indicators for measuring developments in the bioeconomy; public awareness and perception of the bioeconomy, biobased products and processes, and sustainable resource utilization can enhance environmental sustainability. However, additional efforts are needed to strengthen public acceptance [64]. Progress in climate mitigation and adaptation by companies and national governments remains slow, while local development actions can also address these impacts from the bottom up. Inhabitants of fishing regions observe the most noticeable changes in the environment, such as heatwaves, droughts, and species changes, and attempt to mitigate them locally. However, they often overlook participation in global and European efforts to mitigate climate change. In locally planned development activities initiated by local communities, transitioning to a low-carbon economy is generally considered secondary to other priorities [65].

In this area, there are also many potential topics that can be examined. The current usage rate of non-renewable energy sources should be analyzed for long-term effects, such as economic and environmental risks, and the impacts of the transition of green energy to socioeconomic effects. In addition, differences in the development of green energy activities between EU countries should be compared and criticized for using these differences for regional mutual green energy transition plans. Poland is developing the usage of RESs, however, there are still many possibilities to make greater progress in the energy system toward being greener. Comparisons with other countries with similar natural conditions would be a great field of study. Also, when it comes to sustainable activities, companies should prioritize and encourage the use of green energy and must rearrange activities and processes on production lines to comply with their green energy environmental plans.

5. Research on Technological Aspects in the Context of Energy

5.1. Energy Storage

Developing new technologies and finding innovative solutions is crucial to increase the efficiency of energy generated from renewable sources. This is especially important in the context of energy storage and combines solutions with RESs to avoid dependence on changing weather conditions. Additionally, energy transformation is mandatory in Poland. Therefore, energy storage meets the needs of Poland’s changes in energy transformation [66]. Academics proposed some storage solutions and their analyses:

• The concept of gravitational energy storage in existing hard coal mine shafts in Poland is significant due to the country’s extensive mining infrastructure and its need for innovative ways to utilize disused shafts. Despite the potential, this solution’s economic benefits were minimal under the 2021 price conditions. Nevertheless, Poland seeks new scientific and practical solutions in this area [67].
• Poland has many abandoned mines, and their number is expected to increase in the future. Utilizing Poland’s abandoned mining infrastructure for energy storage plants offers numerous advantages. Converting these mines to storage places that generate electricity can provide new energy sources and support the transition from high-emission conventional fossil fuel power plants to low-emission renewable energy sources [68].
• The theoretical potential of small-scale pumped storage stations located in urban areas is examined using tools from the geographic information system for a selected case study in Torun, Poland. This analysis reveals that for a city with a population of around 200,000, the storage potential for pumped-storage amounts to 19.2 MWh or 11.3 MWh, depending on the selection criteria applied to buildings. Storage potential is insufficient to meet the typical demand for all or individual dwellings. On a city-wide scale, the storage system could contribute to covering up to 44% of the city’s lighting energy demand, but this constitutes less than 1% of the city’s total energy demand [69].
• Research on energy storage for a photovoltaic farm, using the prices of the Polish Power Exchange from June 2020 to May 2023, reveals the results. A photovoltaic installation could generate 303,605 EUR/MWp in revenue for three years. However, when combined with a storage capacity of 0.5 MWh, this revenue could increase to 321,789 EUR/MWp, a 6% boost. Although the additional revenue from energy storage facilities may not be significant, these findings underscore the potential for further research and development in this area [70].
• The development of hydropower in Poland is considered very small. The environmental and legal conditions are unfavorable when constructing new large hydropower plants. Pumped-storage power plants, which are energy storage facilities, should constitute an essential element of the Polish energy system. The European Green Deal presents a significant opportunity for developing hydropower (specifically in the field of electricity storage) in Poland [71].
• The need for energy storage to ensure the stability of electricity production from low-flexible sources, such as coal-based power plants, is crucial. For this purpose, a methodology has been developed to determine the daily minimum energy storage capacities, allowing the integration of stable energy sources, such as nuclear power. In Poland, it is estimated that approximately 6 GWh of additional storage capacity is needed, equivalent to twice the planned capacity of the Młoty Pumped Storage Power Plant [72].
• An innovative approach to the “smart housing community” model prioritizes electricity generation and storage within the community. Key elements include buildings with very low and coordinated energy demand, strong resident participation, and a large share of local energy generation with storage in homes. The initial focus is on maximizing energy efficiency in individual buildings. The authors evaluated the actual energy consumption compared to the design values using Design Builder software. This approach demonstrates a Smart City solution for a community of single-family houses, showcasing minimal final energy demand and the potential to achieve up to a 96% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions [73].
• Energy systems based on Variable Renewable Energy sources like solar and wind are discontinuous due to weather and climate conditions, posing challenges for maintaining a stable energy supply. Microgrids based on VRE must manage this variability using energy storage. The authors analyzed the benefits of combining solar and wind energy with energy storage technologies as well as the electrolyzer, hydrogen storage, and fuel cells and explored various options for energy mix. The most advantageous was a mixed system that uses solar irradiation and wind energy, stabilized by a biogas plant, where the energy storage capacity was fully utilized [74].

Research has already explored various energy storage technologies in Poland, such as the use of abandoned mines for energy storage, small-scale urban pumped storage systems, and the merging of photovoltaic farms with storage solutions to increase efficiency. This is a promising direction of research; however, the scale of these activities is still not sufficient. Research in Poland should focus more on the storage of energy on different infrastructures, especially those connected to photovoltaic energy. Future research should focus on improving the economic viability of storage technologies, optimizing large-scale integration with renewable energy sources, and investigating innovative storage solutions, such as hydrogen or advanced battery systems. Additionally, it would be worth conducting detailed studies on regional energy storage potential and the role of smart grids in improving energy stability across Poland. As the transition to renewable energy is significant and due to energy commitments, countries such as Poland should focus on further research on energy storage. As the authors show in this chapter, there are appropriate storage ideas and methods that academics proposed, but further research and development, both theoretical and practical, are needed in this area. The dependence on weather conditions and the reduction in dependence on fossil fuels require advanced storage systems.

5.2. Powering Vehicles

The use of technology and transportation adaptation for energy purposes will become increasingly helpful during the energy transition. Researchers worked to develop a hybrid photovoltaic solar electric system for generating electricity in a heavy-duty diesel engine-driven city bus. The hybrid solar PV system provided 89% of the total electricity demand for the city bus during clear weather conditions and made substantial contributions during the winter season [75]. Another sustainable transport option is to use hydrogen, which can be applied to power vehicles. An analysis on the hydrogen usage for bus propulsion in Katowice (Poland) was conducted. According to the analysis, 317 kg of hydrogen can be supplied daily for the nine buses under study. These buses will cover 3501.72 km every day. The study assumed the necessity of constructing a hydrogen supply station for buses in Katowice, as currently no such station exists. The station infrastructure would need to include an electrolyzer, a compressor, fuel and storage facilities, as well as a dispenser [76]. Reports emphasize the need to increase investments in charging infrastructure within cities to advance electromobility in Poland. Germany has a well-established track record of investing in green energy technologies, whereas Poland may face challenges in shifting away from conventional energy sources. The greater acceptance of electromobility and renewable energy sources in Germany may be related to a greater emphasis on environmental awareness and education on sustainable development and technologies [6].

As shown above, researchers have found hybrid PV solar electric generation systems for public transportation buses, which are effective in clear weather conditions. However, more research and technological development is needed to develop environmental systems that work in all seasons and weather conditions. Furthermore, hydrogen use for bus propulsion in Katowice was presented with the analysis of the need for hydrogen fueling infrastructure. This is an interesting and important direction of research as such analysis can help decision-makers consider and even make investments in hydrogen technology. Such analyses are needed for a specific city with real data. When it comes to hydrogen, hydrogen supply stations must be constructed, and infrastructure networks must be built. In general, when comparing Germany and Poland, Germany has made significant progress in the powering of vehicles, charging infrastructure, and energy technologies. Some technologies can be purchased to integrate big Polish cities with more electric cars and green energy public transport, and society will become more used to using electric cars and being aware of renewable energy. More studies should focus on how Poland can decarbonize its electricity grid while promoting sustainable transportation solutions. What is more, future research should investigate the challenges of expanding hydrogen and electric vehicles in Poland, particularly in terms of their environmental and economic impacts.

It is important to note that electricity in Poland comes primarily from coal, making the switch to electric vehicles controversial due to its indirect reliance on high-emission energy sources. Although electric vehicles are a promising solution, under current conditions and data, they may not provide significant environmental benefits. Therefore, this issue is particularly complex in Poland. Electric vehicles only make sense if their energy source comes from renewable sources, and this should be the main focus of future research and practice. Otherwise, the term “electric vehicle” becomes more of a popular buzzword than an actual solution.

5.3. Technology and Engineering

The forthcoming energy transformation will require significant financial and technical investments. Decision-makers must consider various factors, such as social responsibility, location, proximity to gas and electrical grids, and availability of solar and wind resources. The implementation of individual projects should be meticulously planned, as poorly conceived projects can be financially and technically inefficient [77]. Additionally, local spatial development plans significantly impact individual households’ investments in renewable energy sources. Future opportunities for technological innovation will require creative approaches to local planning. Local governments should actively facilitate and coordinate these efforts, capitalizing on opportunities arising from societal changes. They must balance the required flexibility of local laws and the rigorous enforcement of pro-ecological solutions [78]. The European energy crisis requires Poland to introduce new legislative and technological solutions to facilitate a rapid transition to green energy. When examining specific renewable energy sources and needed engineering studies, the following can be indicated:

• To begin with, the wind farm market in Poland experienced rapid growth from 2000 to 2015. However, strong public resistance prompted the government to freeze industry development in 2016 by introducing a restrictive act, which led to an abrupt stop in the wind farm industry [79]. A major challenge in the generation of wind energy is the localization of wind turbines, which must meet various criteria. The choice of optimal location for wind turbines must avoid negatively impacting the natural environment. This balance between environmental considerations and economic needs is crucial to the application of sustainable technologies [80].
• Moreover, installation based on sun and solar radiation is expanding their share of energy production. One of the areas where energy is obtained using the sun is hot water production or space heating. Solar collector devices harness solar radiation for hot water or space heating applications. They are becoming increasingly important in Europe and worldwide, primarily due to the easy availability of solar radiation as an energy source. The advisability of using solar collectors depends on several factors, including different locations due to climatic conditions. The analyses showed that solar collectors are most favorable in southern Croatia and Slovakia. The least favorable location turned out to be Riga. Regardless of location, the solar collector area significantly affects the efficiency of the entire system [81]. PV panels are another system that uses solar energy. Further development of the PV market and technology requires addressing several challenges, including advancements in PV cells, modules, components, power conversion and management systems, optimizers, batteries, and other energy storage systems. Additionally, improving grid efficiency, recycling, reducing production costs, providing subsidies, raising public awareness, and tackling energy exclusion is crucial. Progress in technology, power grids, legislation, economic, and social conditions must occur simultaneously [82]. Monitoring the productivity of PV micro-installations is also crucial. Numerous models exist to determine theoretical productivity of PV panels based on weather data and panel characteristics, and these productivity values should be compared with theoretical data. Olczak analyzed the alignment of the weather data from the ERA5 database with pyranometer measurements taken on a horizontal surface at a PV installation site. Comparative insolation studies from the ERA5 model and pyranometer measurements were conducted over 1187 days. In most cases (85%), the ERA5 data showed higher daily insolation values than the station measurements from. The relative mean bias error (rMBE) was 23% [83]. The economic effectiveness of photovoltaic micro-installations should be checked as well. Academics focused on a public utility building and examined the economic effectiveness of various photovoltaic micro-installations, both those without energy storage and those equipped with lithium-ion batteries for storage [84].
• Furthermore, bio-based solutions are anticipated to promote technological circularity in critical sectors like agriculture, biotechnology, ecology, green industry, and energy. Achieving intelligent, sustainable, and inclusive growth involves advancing bioeconomy-related areas such as the biogas industry and introducing new technologies for optimizing municipal sewage treatment and organic solid waste management. Polish innovations illustrate that a “zero waste” approach in a circular bioeconomy can transform waste materials into valuable commercial products and recover water resources, leading to beneficial outcomes [85]. Sewage sludge can be utilized in crop production to decrease reliance on non-renewable resources. Using sewage sludge as fertilizer contributes to high-energy crop yields and promotes decarbonization by reducing reliance on mineral fertilizers, enhancing the energy efficiency of agricultural technology and ensuring rational resource management. Applying sewage sludge at optimal rates is an effective strategy for energy crop cultivation, aiding the shift from a linear to a circular economy [86]. Apart from fertilizer, water scarcity is an issue for agriculture. Since water is vital for proper crop growth and sustainability, using spent geothermal brine for agricultural activities should be considered. As an underutilized waste stream with high ionic content, spent geothermal brine must be desalinated before irrigation. High specific energy consumption is the main barrier to desalination. Thus, integrating renewable energy resources into the desalination process is crucial. Employing appropriate technology solutions, such as reducing concentrate, using a pyramidal design for the RO system, or mixing RO permeate with well water at a specific ratio, may lower the cost of producing adequate water for irrigation [87].
• Lastly, heat pumps are considered a renewable energy source but do not directly obtain energy from the sun or wind. Heat pumps represent a critical technology that can contribute to the achievement of energy-efficient heating, cooling, and domestic hot water preparation. Air-to-water and air-to-air heat pumps have emerged as the most popular choices for lower and upper heat sources, whereas ground-source heat pumps have been less favored. The growth of the heat pump market has been shaped by various factors, including social, environmental, economic, and technological influences. Between 2009 and 2020, the highest number of heat pumps was sold in France, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Germany, and Spain. Poland ranked in the middle of the list, while Lithuania was one of the countries with lower sales during this period [88].

In summary, research has already been conducted on the development of renewable energy technologies, such as wind farms, solar collectors, photovoltaic systems, bio-based solutions, and heat pumps. These studies have analyzed the environmental, economic, and technological aspects of the implementation of these technologies. When it comes to engineering and research and development, universities and research projects related to renewable energy should be supported by government incentives. More laboratories and departments on renewable energy need to be established to encourage new developments in energy technologies by university students and researchers. New research areas should be discovered, such as technological solutions for integrating storage systems with wind farms, and solar collector devices, bio-based solutions, and heat pumps. The contribution of new technologies to the effectiveness of energy use should be more discussed, and barriers must be discussed to improve engineering studies. Future research should also focus on conducting based-on-real-data analyses of the economic viability of energy storage solutions, such as batteries and pumped-storage plants.

6. Research on Awareness and Attitudes Regarding Energy Issues

There is a lot of research on public awareness of energy sources. This research includes community opinions as well as community sources on changes related to energy facilities, devices, and other aspects of resources with the transition from fossil fuels to renewable sources. The authors of [89] conducted a survey in Częstochowa (a medium-sized city in the Śląskie Voivodeship of Poland), to investigate the environmental awareness and attitudes toward implementing pro-ecological solutions among residents. The survey revealed a greater social awareness of the benefits of modern ecological solutions, which are seen to be capable of reducing maintenance costs and minimizing negative impacts on the natural environment. The findings underscored the strong community demand that urban spaces should be adapted in accordance with ecological standards and highlighted a willingness among respondents to embrace and support ecological changes in municipal management practices. Another study [90] presents conducted research focused on rural communities’ awareness and perceptions of renewable energy sources, specifically within Lipno County in the Kuyavian–Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland. They found that while there is broad awareness of renewable energies among locals, knowledge about the specific advantages, disadvantages, and potentials of locally available renewable sources was found to be shallow, imbalanced, and outdated. The authors argue that an inclusive approach, where locals invest in renewable energy, not only promotes spatial distribution justice but also helps break carbon dependency and promotes sustainable development in rural areas. Another paper [91] also examines the concept of energy literacy in rural areas, focusing on its three key dimensions: awareness, attitude, and behavior. The research, conducted in Zławieś Wielka in north-central Poland, involved a social survey to analyze the relationship between energy literacy and rural resilience. The findings indicate an emerging ecological awareness among rural residents and a strong need for environmentally responsible energy management, including investments in energy efficiency and renewable energy sources. The study concludes that the rural community has the potential to drive a sustainable and equitable energy transition but emphasizes the need for increased educational efforts and sustained institutional support from the central government to promote local development and social capital. The authors of [92] conducted a study using survey research and visual evaluation to explore public perception and acceptance of agricultural biogas plants. They aimed to examine public awareness, analyze opinions on biogas plants in diverse landscapes, and perform visual assessments of landscapes with existing biogas plants in Poland. Their findings revealed that education significantly influences the perception of biogas plant benefits and costs. While society is increasingly accepting biogas plants in agricultural landscapes, proper location and land management are crucial. The survey results indicated that odors are seen as the primary disadvantage, while energy and heat production are the main benefits. Interestingly, despite the negative perceptions of landscapes with biogas plants, visual assessments did not show any negative impact on the landscape.

Despite increasing human awareness, many studies continue to examine public perceptions and opinions on renewable energy among citizens. For example, the paper of [93] aimed to understand the opinions of residents in southeastern Poland regarding changes in the energy sector and its impact on the natural environment, particularly in the context of decarbonization efforts. The survey conducted collected 1539 responses. The findings confirmed several hypotheses: there is strong social support for addressing climate change as a major threat, a belief that the local natural environment is relatively good compared to other regions, and an expectation for increasing renewable energy sources and nuclear energy. In general, the community surveyed supports the planned transformation of the energy sector to more sustainable practices. Another study [94] explores the preferences of Polish residents for the development of renewable energy, focusing on wind power. The study examines how beliefs about the negative impacts of wind turbines on the environment, landscape, human health, and well-being influence these preferences. The results show that people with strong beliefs about the negative effects of wind turbines, whether they view them as harmful or not, desire a say in renewable energy projects near their homes. In addition, those who believe wind energy is not harmful exhibit a stronger preference for wind energy development and are willing to pay more to increase the distance between renewable energy sites and residential areas. Despite wind energy, there is research on solar energy. The authors of [95] surveyed companies specializing in photovoltaic installations in Poland to assess their perspectives on the industry’s future amidst recent regulatory changes. The study revealed significant concerns among companies regarding the short transition period provided to adapt to the new support system for prosumers, which could potentially decrease interest in photovoltaic installations and require significant operational adjustments. Key findings highlighted that around 80% of companies intend to differentiate themselves through quality in a competitive market, while nearly 60% prioritize monitoring competitors’ activities. Moreover, a notable 28.9% of enterprises are considering introducing new services or products, such as energy storage solutions or photovoltaic roof tiles. Finally, the authors of [96] conducted a study to assess public perceptions about the increase in forest biomass production, focusing particularly on Poland within the broader context of global and European Union climate and energy policies. The study highlighted a growing negative perception of biomass utilization both nationally and internationally, largely influenced by concerns over environmental impacts and sustainability. The findings underscored the significant role of EU policies in shaping global attitudes toward biomass as a renewable energy source despite increasing energy demands. The authors emphasized the need to improve public awareness about the environmental benefits and sustainability aspects of forest biomass to garner greater acceptance and support for EU-driven renewable energy initiatives.

Some studies focus on human behavior and decision on issues connected with environment and renewables. The authors of [97] investigated energy-saving behaviors among households with energy prosumers in Poland that utilize photovoltaic panels and heat pumps. The aim was to understand the energy behaviors of the prosument and the differences between users of photovoltaic systems and heat pumps. The findings revealed that prosumers generally exhibit advanced ecological behaviors, with over half actively implementing pro-ecological practices at home. On the other hand, other authors [98] conducted a study that focus on the factors influencing entrepreneurs’ decisions to invest in renewable energy, particularly in Poland. The study highlighted that information on funding opportunities from the European Union and the government, clarity in government energy policies, and technological advancements play crucial roles in shaping decisions regarding renewable energy investments.

In the literature, there are also papers presenting comparative analysis. For example, in the paper of [99], there are the results of surveys in France, Germany, and Poland presented. This research was carried out to understand the factors driving citizen participation in renewable energy communities (RECs). Their findings indicate that citizens are more likely to invest in RECs if their municipality offers matching investments. Additionally, the propensity to invest decreases significantly with the possibility of losing the entire investment. The study also found that individual preferences, financial capabilities, social norms, place identity, and trust in local government are significant predictors of stated investments in RECs. By highlighting the importance of municipal support and the need to minimize investment risks, the research provides insights into how to enhance citizen participation in renewable energy initiatives. Other comparative analysis was conducted in Poland, Austria, Serbia, and Sweden [100]. The survey aimed to assess local government officials’ awareness and attitudes toward safeguarding mineral resources in the context of sustainable economic development. Their analysis revealed that while officials are aware of the raw material deposits in their regions, they only partially recognize the importance of protecting these resources from developments that could make them unusable. The study found a lack of comprehensive understanding of the broader public interest in preserving non-renewable mineral resources and an insufficient rational assessment of the consequences of losing these resources due to planning decisions. Another study compares the energy policies of Poland and Germany within the framework of the European Union’s efforts to mitigate climate change and enhance energy security until 2050 [101]. Key findings highlighted common goals in reducing environmental impacts and ensuring energy security while emphasizing the need for innovative thinking and citizen involvement to achieve renewable energy targets. The study revealed that while both Poland and Germany share concerns about the social and economic implications of energy transformation, Germany shows greater readiness to take risks and has stronger institutional frameworks for climate action and investment attraction compared to Poland.

Moreover, some papers discuss the topic of work competences in the context of new jobs and professions created by the developing renewable energy sector. The authors of [102] conducted an analysis focusing on employment trends and competency requirements within the energy sector in Poland, particularly in the context of green energy. They explored the evolving demands for multi-competent employees that have technical, business, and interdisciplinary skills in response to the dynamic growth of renewable energy sources like photovoltaics and the rise in prosumption. Research highlighted the increasing importance of soft skills alongside technical expertise, underscoring the need for educational systems to align closely with industry needs. The findings supported the hypothesis that the energy sector’s transition to green energy is indeed increasing employment opportunities while amplifying the demand for versatile competencies among professionals. Other research [103] aimed to evaluate the competency requirements in the Polish energy labor market, with a particular focus on the trends in hard and soft skills, especially in the context of renewable energy sources. The research found that teamwork and proficiency in MS Office are essential skills sought by employers. The study also highlighted the diverse nature of competency demands in the market, highlighting that soft skills are crucial in all positions, including technical roles. This underscores the importance of a balanced set in the energy sector, which combines technical expertise with strong interpersonal and organizational abilities.

Among the analyzed papers, there was also one paper on renewables in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors conducted a study to determine the expectations of residents of southeast Poland regarding the energy market after the COVID-19 crisis [104]. The study aimed to identify whether the crisis influenced residents’ expectations and if these were aligned with national and EU policies and to explore variations in perceptions based on sex, residence, and heating type. The findings showed strong support for optimizing the use of national energy resources, developing energy networks, and enhancing energy efficiency, with a significant interest in renewable energy sources. However, there was no consensus on giving up on nuclear energy, reflecting Poland’s energy policy that favors its development. Men were more supportive of nuclear energy than women, who favored RES development. Rural residents showed a higher preference for RESs and energy efficiency improvements.

In summary, it can be claimed that the presented group of papers mostly explores public awareness, attitudes, and perceptions about energy issues in Poland, focusing on the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. These studies address both urban and rural contexts, examining how communities understand and support renewable energy initiatives. Research also studies and discusses broader issues such as energy education, investment in renewable energy, the influence of government policies, and the social acceptance of renewable energy facilities. Comparative studies highlight differences in the way citizens from various countries, including Poland, participate in renewable energy projects, highlighting the role of local governments and social factors in shaping these attitudes. Additionally, some papers investigate the evolving competencies required in the renewable energy sector, focusing on employment trends as a response to the growing demand for green energy.

Despite the diverse nature of this research, several critical issues emerge in the context of Poland. Although public awareness of renewable energy is generally growing, the depth of understanding is uneven, particularly in rural areas where knowledge about the benefits and challenges of renewable technologies is limited. The studies reveal a mixed reception for certain technologies, such as wind turbines and biogas plants, where aesthetic and environmental concerns hinder broader public acceptance. In the studies conducted so far, although they try to comprehensively analyze the attitudes of residents toward renewable energy, there is a lack of an adequate number of studies comparing the awareness of people in cities and villages. It is also worth emphasizing that the attitudes of residents toward energy depend not only on the place of residence, but also on the size of the city, location, and regional policy, which makes it even more difficult to generalize the results to the whole of Poland. Therefore, such comparisons would have to be conducted on a very large scale to obtain a representative sample and be able to draw reliable conclusions for the entire country. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct extensive research on awareness and attitudes toward energy on a larger scale, with due consideration of geographical, demographic, and social differences. It is also necessary to recall practical difficulties, such as the lack of willingness of respondents to participate in interviews or surveys and difficulties in reaching target groups, especially in rural or less populated areas. Expanding the scope of the studies would allow for a better understanding of the differences in environmental awareness and readiness to accept renewable technologies, which could support more effective educational and promotional strategies in the future.

Moreover, in the context of studies that compare attitudes and awareness of citizens in different countries, it is worth emphasizing that more research is needed, as such comparative studies are valuable and provide new conclusions. It is particularly important that these countries are characterized by similar climatic, geological, and economic conditions, which would allow for more reliable conclusions. Due to such comparisons, it would be possible to identify key factors that influence environmental awareness and attitudes toward renewable energy. Such studies could also show how different factors, such as state policies or social initiatives, affect citizens’ attitudes. Analysis of these elements could help create more effective strategies to increase awareness and promote pro-environmental actions at the international level.

Finally, it would also be worth conducting research that compares people’s environmental awareness, their declarations of preferences for renewable energy, and their actual actions. Often, declarations of support for renewable energy do not always translate into specific pro-ecological attitudes in everyday life. Therefore, it would be important to investigate what really influences people’s decisions and what factors could motivate them to increase their environmental activity. It is crucial to understand how to influence people not only to increase their environmental awareness, but, above all, to take specific steps in the field of pro-environmental actions. This applies especially to investments in renewable technologies at the individual level, such as photovoltaics, replacing furnaces, or installing heat pumps. Research could help identify barriers that prevent consumers from taking such actions and indicate tools that could overcome these barriers. In this way, more effective strategies could be developed to encourage practical investments in renewable energy sources in Poland, which is crucial in the context of sustainable development and environmental protection.

In summary, the research gaps in the area of human awareness and attitude toward RESs include the following:

• Limited comparative studies between awareness in urban and rural areas and lack of large-scale, representative studies that can generalize the findings to the entire Polish population, with particular challenges in rural and less populated areas.
• Lack of recent international comparative studies, focusing on Poland and country/ies with similar climatic, geological, and economic conditions to better understand key influences on attitudes toward renewable energy.
• Lack of studies on the comparison between declared support for renewable energy and actual pro-environmental behavior—this issue requires more research to explore what drives or hinders practical investments in renewable technologies.

7. Research on Finances and Investments in the Energy Sector

Many aspects contribute to the causes and effects of changes in the energy sector in Poland, primarily based on economic reasons. Peczkis et al. [105] examined the relationship between market prices for electricity in the context of the growing share of renewable energy generation in Poland. The study considered the years 2019–2022, during which there was also a large change in investments (in terms of increased installed capacity) in PV installations (Figure 1), thus increasing the share of low-cost energy sources on the market. Low-cost results, on the one hand, from decreasing levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) values for new PV investments and from subsidy co-financing of investments in energy sources. The presence of wind sources in the Polish electricity mix of at least 5.8 GW was also important. Reference [106] investigated the volatility of energy prices in their work: they estimated the price risk related to trading in electricity markets. This risk increased significantly in the years 2019–2022. The reasons were markets’ liberalization and the growing capacity for renewable energy sources. The analysis also concerned comparisons of the impact of various factors on electricity prices in Poland and Germany. In addition to changes in electricity prices, there were changes in natural gas prices; initially, they provided grounds for investing in electricity/energy sources based on this fuel (low prices), but then the situation changed. The analysis performed by [107] took into account the prices of natural gas from 2017 to 2022. These initially low natural gas prices, especially for households, hampered investments in renewable, biomass, and heat pump sources. However, at the end of 2021 and especially in 2022, the situation changed. Rising prices of natural gas, as well as fear of a lack of gas supplies, have contributed to the growth of heat pumps, especially for users of PV installations with a net metering billing system.

This billing system, in addition to the support system in the form of subsidies (including “My Electricity”) for households, contributed to a significant increase in the number and power of PV installations in households. Kulpa et al. [108] compared the costs of supporting households for PV investments with the costs of guaranteed prices for larger producers of energy from renewable sources. The previously mentioned price turmoil on the electricity market meant that support in the form of auction programs in 2021–2023 was practically costless. However, the increasing impact of renewable sources on reducing the market price during hours of high productivity often results in higher operating costs of the auction support program (guarantee of the electricity sales price and lower market prices of electricity).

Mukhtarov et al. [109] analyzed the possibility of reducing energy poverty by increasing the use of renewable energy in Poland. One way is the previously mentioned “My Electricity” program. However, global investments in renewable energy sources also provide the opportunity to provide energy at lower prices during specific hours (which has only been implemented in Poland since 2024). The authors pointed out that the set goals of increasing the share of renewable energy in the energy economy go hand in hand with reducing the phenomenon of energy poverty in Poland. Reducing energy poverty by using RES is quite difficult because it is a good option for the future, but it does not help now for people who do not have enough money (it also includes subsidies).

Supporting the increase in installed capacity in renewable energy sources involves more than just the previously mentioned mechanisms. Kozera et al. [110] analyzed the impact of EU funds for low-carbon investments in Poland in 2014–2020. Many regional operational programs in voivodeships have contributed to the creation of thousands of renewable energy installations with a high level of funding (up to 85%). The authors paid attention to the income criteria for the aid provided and in which voivodeships such aid should be provided first for various reasons, including environmental ones (e.g., Silesian Province).

Standar et al. [111] also conducted an analysis for Poland and the years 2014–2020 in terms of the impact of investments in RESs, taking into account 1117 projects. Using statistical methods, e.g., logical regression, they examined social and geographical dependencies affecting investments. Dembicka-Niemiec et al. [112] performed a similar analysis in the years (2014–2020) of the use of EU funds for enterprises in the energy sector. Most of these funds were allocated to infrastructure investments and much less to innovation or education in the field of social responsibility. However, Florkowski et al. [113] analyzed investments and their effects in the energy sector with a particular emphasis on renewable energy in 2007–2015. In these years, financial resources allowed for an increase in the intensity of investments in renewable sources in the wind turbine and PV sectors (although on a much smaller scale), taking into account that the comparison of the LCOE indicator for PV with market energy prices was extremely unfavorable for the prospects of investing in PV in those years. For the analysis, the authors used multiple linear regression and cartograms methods. As a result, they found, among others, that most cumulated investments in RES were in northeastern and eastern Poland.

Standar et al. [114] analyzed the impact of EU funding on investments in low-carbon projects in large cities in Poland. A total of 223 projects from 2014 to 2020 were taken into account. They analyzed the budgets, goals, and effects of implemented projects using statistical methods. The impact of the scale of projects on their efficiency potential was demonstrated, however, no relationship was found between the scale of investment and, for example, the level of environmental pollution in individual cities.

Ślusarczyk et al. [115] conducted a comparative statistical analysis between the impact of the relationship between investments in renewable energy sources and macroeconomic indicators. Poland and Sweden were taken into account and macroeconomic data from 1991 to 2022 were taken into account. The conclusions obtained prove that the level of economic prosperity affects the development potential of investments in renewable energy.

Many studies cover only the economic or environmental impact of renewable energy investments. Olczak and Komorowska [116] analyzed various aspects of the installation assembly (tilt and azimuth angle of the rack vs. installed power) that affect economic profitability indicators as well as the carbon footprint. They showed the effects of increasing installed power in a photovoltaic installation compared to the construction of a frame for this installation.

Krystosiak [117] attempted to assess the reasons for investing in RESs in Poland in economic, social, and environmental terms. The study is based on surveys collected in 2013–2018. Significant differences were found between municipalities and companies in identifying the key social costs and benefits associated with RESs.

Despite numerous studies in the field of finance and investments in the energy sector, there are still many research issues that have not been addressed in existing analyses. These include, for example, the financial prospects of both existing installations and those planned for the future, as well as the types of energy sources that should receive funding, such as through grant programs. Survey studies conducted in recent years do not provide answers to future decision-making due to dynamic changes in the energy market and the number and capacity of photovoltaic installations.

8. Research on Emissions

This chapter presents work on the ongoing transformation of many sectors of people’s lives toward decarbonization and, consequently, the reduction in CO₂ emissions. Zhang et al. [118] discuss the use of an improved DEA model to measure energy and environmental efficiency in selected Central and Western European countries, including Poland, from 2010 to 2014. It highlights that the UK is the most efficient in energy and environmental terms, suggesting that countries with lower efficiency should implement reforms to address environmental degradation. Poland ranked among the less efficient countries, highlighting the need for significant policy and technological advancements to improve its energy efficiency and reduce emissions.

Xiao et al. [119] provide detailed CO₂ emission inventories for the ten countries that joined the EU in 2004, analyzing data from 2005 to 2017 in 47 socioeconomic sectors. It highlights the overall decrease in emissions, with specific decreases in Malta, Slovakia, and Latvia, and suggests that economic growth was offset by improved energy intensity; it proposes that these countries need to adopt more renewable energy and CCS technology to meet future reduction targets. In contrast, Poland’s emissions remained relatively high due to its continued reliance on coal, underscoring the need for accelerated investment in renewable energy and carbon capture solutions.

The relationship between economic development and environmental quality in Central and Eastern European countries from 1990 to 2019, within the framework of the European Green Deal, was presented by Simionescu [120]. Using the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) and the Renewable Energy Kuznets Curve (RKC), it finds complex relationships between Gross Domestic Product and greenhouse gas emissions and proposes economic policies to reduce pollution and promote sustainable development. In Poland, the study highlights that while economic growth has led to increased emissions, the gradual adoption of renewable energy and stricter environmental regulations offer a pathway toward more sustainable development.

Sasse and Trutnevyte [121] examined how a transition to a low-carbon electricity sector in Europe by 2035 could affect regional inequalities in terms of price, employment, and land use. It finds that while the shift could lead to continent-wide benefits, such as reduced emissions and increased employment, the advantages may disproportionately benefit affluent regions in Northern Europe, leaving southern and southeastern regions more vulnerable due to their lower adaptive capacities. In Poland, the transition poses significant challenges, particularly in coal-dependent regions, where economic restructuring and workforce retraining will be crucial to mitigate social and economic disparities.

The potential of renewable energy sources and storage facilities to replace non-renewable energy sources like coal, oil, and gas in Romania’s power system, using data from January 2019 to August 2022, has been scientifically tested by Bara et al. [122]. It emphasizes the need for a mix of wind, PV systems, and storage to effectively transition from coal, and highlights challenges and considerations, including economic costs, employment impacts, and the influence of geopolitical events and climate change on this transition. The paper shows the results and comparison to Poland as well.

The article by Olczak et al. [123] discusses Poland’s “My Electricity” program, which incentivized prosumers to invest in photovoltaic installations by subsidizing up to 50% of costs, leading to significant growth in renewable energy capacity and substantial reductions in CO₂ emissions over the long term.

The study of the impact of energy productivity on environmental degradation in Poland [124] suggests several policy measures, including increasing investment in renewable energy, liberalizing domestic energy markets, and implementing targeted financial relief for low-income households to mitigate rising energy costs and reduce the dependency of Poland on fossil fuels, particularly in the context of an embargo on Russian energy supplies.

The transformation process of the Polish steel industry was discussed by Gajdzik et al. [125]. In their article, the authors examine the challenges facing the European steel industry, including economic and climate policy pressures, and explore scenarios for decarbonizing Poland’s steel sector by investing in low-carbon technologies, such as green hydrogen, to drastically reduce CO₂ emissions.

Current and potential future uses of hydrogen in Poland and Germany, particularly in industry, transport, and decarbonization of the steel sector, were presented by Jałowiec et al. [126]. It highlights the importance of transitioning from gray to green hydrogen, with Germany positioned as a leader in this energy transformation, while Poland faces more challenges but still has significant opportunities according to entrepreneurs.

The relationship between state transmission lines (electricity interconnections) and renewable energy sources was studied by Yang [127]. He showed that interconnection decreases investments in RES plants and exacerbates carbon emissions if the price of CO₂ is low. However, interconnection increases RES capacity and reduces CO₂ emissions for a high carbon price.

Environmental impact assessments for buildings considering materials, transportation, construction, long-term operations, and waste management have been scientifically tested by Kania et al. [128]. This research found that annual CO₂ emissions per square meter ranged from 30 to 176 kg of CO₂, with energy consumption being the largest contributor (58% to 90%).

The research explored in this chapter investigates the transformation toward decarbonization and the reduction in CO₂ emissions across various sectors. It covers multiple aspects, including the measurement of energy and environmental efficiency, CO₂ emission inventories, and the relationship between economic development and environmental quality. However, there are still areas that need further exploration. More research is needed to better understand the social and economic impacts of decarbonization. Decarbonization in Poland is a much more complex issue than in many other countries, mainly due to the high dependence of Poland on hard coal and lignite. The transition to low-carbon energy sources will have serious consequences for the entire energy sector of the country. The positive environmental effects of decarbonization must be balanced against numerous negative effects, such as energy system reconstruction, job losses in the mining industry, the need to train employees, and many other challenges. Therefore, detailed case studies on the organization of the decarbonization process and the analysis of its impact on different sectors and communities in Poland would be extremely valuable. Such studies could provide important information on the specific challenges Poland faces and help develop effective strategies to mitigate its effects.

In addition, the long-term sustainability of the adoption of renewable energy in the face of geopolitical challenges and climate change remains underexplored. Furthermore, there is a need for research on the effectiveness of public policies in promoting hydrogen use. In the context of emissions research, there is a shortage of studies on hydrogen-powered vehicles. Papers in this area could provide valuable information on the positive environmental aspects associated with hydrogen technology. Analyses of emissions in hydrogen-powered cars and city buses, compared to traditional combustion engines, would be particularly valuable in the context of Polish conditions. Such studies could help assess the effectiveness of hydrogen drives in reducing pollutant emissions and understand how these technologies can improve urban air quality. Such analyses would provide important data needed to support decisions on future investments and policies related to the development of hydrogen infrastructure in Poland.

Moreover, there is a lack of a comparison of emissions between regular cities and smart cities. It would be worth examining whether smart cities in Poland, in reality, achieve better results in the area of emissions and air quality, and if so, what are the values of basic indicators connected with air pollution.

9. Discussion

The findings of the research reviewed provide valuable lessons that can help to inform future Polish and broader EU energy policy. Given Poland’s extensive reliance on coal, policy needs to be directed toward a gradual but immediate transition to renewable energy, supported by huge investment in grid modernization, storage, and infrastructure. The under-exploitation of wind, hydropower, and wave energy requires targeted incentives and regulatory change to realize their potential. The report also underlines the need to align public awareness campaigns with financial incentive structures to stimulate individual and industrial investment in renewables. At the EU level, Poland’s energy transition must be embedded in more overarching frameworks like the European Green Deal, with access to funding, knowledge exchange, and technological cooperation. Decreasing regional disparities in the adoption of renewables and designing policies in line with Poland’s specific economic and social conditions will be key to a sustainable and fair energy transition.

This paper addresses a few research gaps, depending on the area of the RES. They were identified in the previous chapters. However, it is worth highlighting that addressing these research gaps is crucial for advancing Poland’s renewable energy sector and providing effective policies. The poor use of hydropower, despite Poland’s numerous rivers, represents a missed opportunity for diversifying the energy mix. Also, further exploration of wave energy along the Polish coast could provide alternative sources of clean energy. Additionally, optimizing energy storage solutions is essential to ensure grid stability and the efficient use of unstable renewable sources like wind and solar. The challenge of transitioning from a coal-based energy system is not only a technical issue but also a regulatory and infrastructural one. This problem requires detailed and in-depth studies on how to modernize the grid and adapt policy. Moreover, gaps in public awareness research limit policymakers’ chances to design effective programs that encourage investment in renewables. Understanding regional disproportions in awareness—especially between urban and rural areas—is key to providing educational campaigns and support mechanisms. Moreover, comparative studies between Poland and countries with similar conditions could offer valuable insights into best practices and potential obstacles. Lastly, investigating the differences between declared support for renewables and actual pro-environmental behaviors could help bridge the gap between public perception and practical implementation. Addressing these gaps will provide a more comprehensive foundation for decision-making, ensuring that Poland’s energy transition is both effective and socially accepted.

Another element worth discussing is the methodologies used in the reviewed studies. There are a variety of methodologies, including case studies, statistical analyses, computational modeling, surveys, and policy evaluations. Every methodology has its own strengths and limitations. While statistical and computational models provide quantitative insights into renewable energy adoption and efficiency, they often rely on assumptions that may not fully capture Poland’s unique energy landscape, particularly its dependence on coal. Studies that use surveys offer valuable perspectives on public awareness and attitudes but may suffer from sample biases and limited generalizability, especially when comparing urban and rural populations. Additionally, policy analyses highlight regulatory challenges but frequently lack empirical validation through real-world implementation data. In general, there is no ideal methodology. It can be said that future research should adopt interdisciplinary approaches, integrating quantitative modeling with qualitative assessments to ensure a more comprehensive understanding of Poland’s renewable energy transition. Moreover, comparative studies using methodologies tested in other EU countries could help identify best practices applicable to the Polish context.

Along with the evaluation of Poland’s renewable energy performance to other EU nations with similar economic and climatic conditions, it would bring about wider insight into its transformation challenges and possibilities. This review paper does not provide such a comparison; however, in the future, it would be a valuable field of exploration. Currently, it can be mentioned that the same economic constraints and historical fossil fuel reliance with which the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary are confronted have similar outcomes in spite of variations in policy responses and investment trends. For instance, while Poland has advanced to a great degree in solar power, its wind power has been bogged down by regulatory barriers that have stifled its development, unlike Denmark or Germany, where wind power is the dominant source. In addition, Poland’s overdependence on coal stands in contrast to nations like Portugal, which have diversified their energy despite budgetary limitations. A comparative analysis would suggest the best practices, policy innovations, and financial instruments that Poland can adopt to accelerate its transition toward renewable energy, considering its own infrastructural and social challenges.

10. Conclusions

This review has comprehensively analyzed the latest research on renewable energy in Poland, examining 124 papers published between 2021 and 2023. The authors categorized them into 11 subject areas: energy production, energy consumption, energy policy, sustainable development activities, technology and engineering, energy storage, powering vehicles, awareness and attitude regarding energy, finances and investments, emissions, and others. Significant progress has been made, particularly in wind and solar energy, driven by national policies, EU funding, and increasing public support in Poland. The majority of papers covered the subject of energy production, indicating the dominant interest in the issue of energy production from RESs from the research and analytical perspective in the literature. In addition, the literature also includes studies from the social point of view—on social awareness, attitudes toward various energy sources, and opinions on both traditional and renewable energy sources. Moreover, many articles also focus on issues related to energy policy, which emphasizes the importance and multidimensionality of the subject. There are also many articles that address the issues of financing and investment in the energy sector in Poland.

Despite these advances, challenges remain in technology, infrastructure, and policy continuing to hinder the full potential of renewable energy in the region. Poland’s energy landscape has relied heavily on fossil fuels because of its substantial deposits of hard coal and lignite, historically the cornerstone of its energy production. This reliance on fossil fuels poses significant environmental and public health challenges, including high greenhouse gas emissions and local pollution. Furthermore, technology and transportation adaptation in the context of energy will become increasingly important during the energy transition. Specifically, investing in charging infrastructure within cities is essential to advance electromobility in Poland. Enhancing this infrastructure will support the wider adoption of electric vehicles, reduce the reliance on fossil fuels, and contribute to the overall sustainability of the energy system. The need for improvements, particularly in grid modernization and energy storage, is critical to support the transition to green energy and the efficiency of renewable sources. Public awareness and attitudes toward energy sources reveal significant insights into community perspectives and behaviors. Disparities in awareness and knowledge about renewable energy sources persist, particularly in rural areas where understanding of local renewable resources remains limited. Enhancing energy literacy and educational efforts is crucial to foster informed decision-making and promoting a broader acceptance of renewable energy solutions. The transition to renewable energy in the European Union is critical to achieving environmental sustainability, reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and meeting climate objectives. The EU’s efforts, mainly through the European Green Deal and National Energy and Climate Plans, emphasize the diversification of energy sources, with a strong focus on renewable energy sources. However, the transition varies between member states and is driven by regional resources, legal frameworks, and socioeconomic factors.

The review also highlights research gaps, particularly in the integration of renewable energy in the energy grid and understanding the socioeconomic impacts of the transition. These areas are crucial for future exploration and development, and future research should also focus on the long-term economic impacts of renewable investments, regional disparities in adoption, and technological advances in energy storage. The identified research gaps, related to both individual and collectively considered articles, also stem from the early stage of RES development in Poland, as well as the inability to apply all models from other countries to the Polish context.

Additionally, exploring renewables’ social and environmental benefits and comparing Poland’s strategies with similar countries can provide valuable insight for optimizing future policies and achieving sustainability goals. This paper provides valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners, supporting ongoing efforts toward a sustainable energy future in Poland and other EU countries.

In the end, it is worth noting that this research has some limitations. First, the selection of studies was limited to the newest publications from 2021 to 2023, which may exclude important earlier research that could provide historical context or different insights into Poland’s renewable energy transition. Therefore, extending the review to a longer time horizon would be justified. Second, the review primarily relies on peer-reviewed articles, potentially omitting industry reports, government documents, or unpublished research that could offer additional perspectives on the topic. Additionally, while the review highlights key research gaps, it does not provide empirical validation of the proposed solutions. This leaves room for further investigation through quantitative and qualitative studies. Finally, the focus on Poland’s renewable energy sector limits broader comparisons. Therefore, future research could benefit from a more detailed benchmarking of Poland’s progress relative to other Central and Eastern European countries facing similar energy transition challenges.