Global Energy Transition and Low Carbon Technology Pathways

1. Introduction

The transition of the global energy system toward decarbonization has emerged as a paramount research focus in contemporary academic and industrial discourse. Driven by the urgent need to mitigate climate change, this transition involves intricate interdependencies among technological innovation, policy design, market mechanisms, and environmental sustainability. It therefore represents an unprecedented systemic transformation requiring deep coordination among governments, industries, researchers, and civil society. This Special Issue brings together 20 seminal research articles that collectively advance the understanding of energy system optimization, low-carbon technologies in transportation, industrial decarbonization at both the sectoral and facility scales, and corporate decision-making frameworks for energy transition. Together, these contributions offer a comprehensive view of the evolving landscape of global decarbonization, highlighting emerging challenges, opportunities, and policy implications. It is not the purpose of this Editorial to analyze each paper in detail, but rather to draw attention to this rapidly expanding field and to inspire further interdisciplinary research and collaboration toward a sustainable energy future.

The urgency of this transition is underscored by the mounting global challenges of climate change, resource depletion, and energy insecurity. Recent studies have deepened our understanding of the socio-technical dynamics that shape this process, revealing how technology, institutions, and human behavior interact in complex ways. At the technological level, digitalization has emerged as a powerful driver of energy system optimization. Artificial intelligence and big data applications can greatly enhance the operational efficiency of integrated energy systems, thereby reducing the carbon intensity of urban areas [1,2]. Moreover, digitalization demonstrates more pronounced efficacy in carbon reduction across high-carbon industries, industrial enterprises, and developing regions [3]. Complementing this, blockchain technology has become a core tool for achieving efficient and trustworthy renewable energy certificate trading by enhancing transparency, efficiency and trust mechanisms, particularly suited to distributed and diversified energy markets [4,5]. Promoting blockchain applications in the energy certificate sector will help accelerate the green energy transition and foster market innovation. Technological innovation thus forms the foundation of the energy transition, yet its long-term sustainability depends on effective coordination among technological resources, institutional frameworks, and societal adaptation processes.

Beyond technology, the geopolitical and material dimensions of the energy transition are equally critical, as they directly determine the pace and equity of global decarbonization. Key minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and rare-earth elements may become potential supply chain bottlenecks if not managed sustainably, thereby constraining the expansion of renewables and energy storage systems [6,7,8]. At the same time, the transformation of global energy structures will reshape employment patterns. Studies suggest that while around 3.2 million jobs may be lost in fossil-fuel-related sectors, more than 5 million new positions could be created in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and grid modernization by 2050 [9,10,11]. Ensuring this transition remains fair and inclusive will require large-scale workforce reskilling, institutional support for labor mobility, and coordinated international capacity-building initiatives [12,13]. Such efforts are essential to balance economic restructuring with social stability, ensuring that the global shift toward clean energy delivers both environmental and societal benefits.

Behavioral and policy dimensions also play a decisive role in shaping the effectiveness and inclusiveness of the energy transition. Cross-cultural research has shown that social norms, peer influence, and community identity often exert a stronger impact than purely economic incentives in motivating households to adopt rooftop solar systems or participate in energy-saving programs [14,15,16]. This underscores that energy behavior is not solely a matter of cost–benefit calculation but is deeply embedded within broader cultural, social, and institutional contexts. Effective behavioral interventions therefore require a nuanced understanding of local values, trust in governance, and perceptions of fairness. From a macro-policy perspective, the IMF (2024) estimates that comprehensive fossil fuel subsidy reform—combined with redirecting fiscal resources toward social protection, green infrastructure, and low-carbon innovation—could reduce global CO₂ emissions by about 28% by 2030 compared to current trajectories [17,18,19]. These findings highlight that institutional innovation, fiscal restructuring, and participatory governance are indispensable pillars of equitable and enduring decarbonization [20,21].

Meanwhile, the intersection between climate change and energy system resilience has become an increasingly critical research frontier. Modeling studies indicate that the rising frequency and intensity of climate-induced extreme weather events—such as heatwaves, floods, and storms—pose escalating risks to power generation, transmission, and distribution networks. These challenges necessitate strategic investments in grid decentralization, asset reinforcement, and flexible system design to build “climate-proof” energy infrastructure capable of maintaining reliability under stress. Although such adaptation measures may initially raise system costs by 10–15%, they are widely considered economically justified over the long term, given their potential to prevent catastrophic disruptions and economic losses [22,23,24]. In the Global South, research has documented that leapfrogging directly toward decentralized renewable energy systems—such as solar mini-grids, hybrid microgrids, and off-grid storage solutions—represents not only a viable low-carbon development pathway but also a crucial strategy for improving energy access, enhancing social equity, and reducing persistent energy poverty [25,26]. Together, these findings underscore that climate resilience and energy justice must evolve hand in hand to ensure the stability and inclusiveness of the global energy transition.

Finally, new approaches to system integration and sectoral coupling are gaining growing attention as key enablers of a holistic and efficient energy transition. Studies on vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies have demonstrated that large-scale electric vehicle (EV) fleets can serve not only as transportation assets but also as distributed energy storage units, capable of providing flexible grid-balancing services, stabilizing voltage and frequency, and supporting peak-load management [27,28]. When effectively integrated, such systems can significantly enhance renewable energy utilization and reduce the need for costly grid expansions. Beyond the power and transport sectors, deeper sectoral coupling—linking electricity, heating, transport, and industry—can unlock additional decarbonization synergies through hydrogen-based fuels, electrified industrial processes, and carbon capture–enabled manufacturing. Achieving global net-zero emissions by 2050 will therefore depend on accelerated innovation in advanced batteries, hydrogen electrolyzers, and direct air capture technologies during the next critical decade [29,30]. Collectively, these findings, together with the contributions presented in this Special Issue (Part Ⅰ) and additional comments in the conclusions, reaffirm that the global energy transition is not merely a technological shift but a complex, multidimensional transformation requiring systemic coordination across technology, governance, and society to realize a sustainable and equitable low-carbon future.

2. An Overview of Published Articles

2.1. Modeling Optimal Transition Pathways

Contemporary scholarship has developed sophisticated modeling frameworks to inform evidence-based policymaking for energy system decarbonization. Paiboonsin et al. (2024) (Contribution 1) employed the OSeMOSYS modeling platform to conduct a rigorous assessment of carbon mitigation potentials across alternative transition pathways in Indonesia. Their analysis demonstrates that achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 represents the most cost-optimal scenario while delivering substantial environmental co-benefits. Similarly, Gibson et al. (2024) (Contribution 2) utilized the OSeMOSYS framework to analyze Egypt’s energy transition under IRENA scenarios, concluding that a 53% renewable electricity generation target by 2030 would optimize system performance, potentially yielding cumulative CO₂ emission reductions of 732 million metric tons by 2070.

2.2. Energy System Resilience Considerations

Beyond carbon mitigation metrics, recent research has increasingly emphasized the critical importance of maintaining energy system resilience during renewable energy transitions. Wang et al. (2022) (Contribution 3) developed an enhanced LEAP model to project China’s thermal power generation capacity under various climate scenarios. Their findings recommend maintaining thermal power contributions at 44.6–46.1% in 2025 and 37.4–39.3% in 2030 of total generation capacity as a strategic buffer against renewable energy intermittency and associated grid stability challenges.

2.3. Innovations in Energy System Optimization

Contemporary research has made substantial progress in elucidating the optimization potential of integrated nuclear-renewable energy systems. Paisiripas et al. (2024) (Contribution 4) conducted a groundbreaking empirical study of a hybrid energy system in Phuket Island, Thailand, incorporating solar photovoltaics, wind turbines, and small modular reactors (SMRs). Their findings demonstrate significant improvements across multiple performance indicators: a 28% reduction in both net present cost (NPC) and levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), accompanied by a 58% decrease in CO₂ emissions compared to conventional grid-dependent systems. Building upon this work, Gabbar and Esteves (2022) (Contribution 5) developed an innovative adaptive SMR modeling framework that facilitates robust assessment of reactor performance under diverse operational conditions, significantly contributing to our understanding of nuclear energy’s role in future sustainable energy portfolios.

2.4. Emerging Energy Technologies

Recent scholarship has identified several promising energy technologies with transformative potential. Molière et al. (2024) (Contribution 6) performed a comprehensive technical evaluation of supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO₂) power cycles, systematically analyzing both the thermodynamic advantages and practical implementation barriers at industrial scales. Their work provides critical insights for scaling this technology in commercial applications.

2.5. Alternative Fuel Technologies

The emission reduction capabilities of hydrogen and hybrid fuel systems have been extensively validated through rigorous scientific investigation. Sonthalia et al. (2023) (Contribution 7) demonstrated that hydrogen-enriched vegetable oil-biodiesel formulations substantially improve the performance characteristics of compression ignition engines while achieving measurable reductions in regulated emissions. Jurić et al. (2024) (Contribution 8) further advanced this field through detailed thermodynamic modeling of gasoline-hydrogen blends, quantifying emission reductions across all major pollutants except nitrogen oxides (NOx), which exhibited an expected increase due to combustion temperature effects.

2.6. Life Cycle Assessment Perspectives

Moving beyond conventional emission metrics, Hu and Chen (2022) (Contribution 9) conducted a thorough life cycle analysis comparing LNG and diesel-powered heavy vehicles in the Chinese context. Their results reveal that LNG technology offers substantial environmental benefits, with reductions ranging from 44.6% to 52.7% in key impact categories including carbon emissions, global warming potential (GWP), and photochemical oxidant creation potential (POCP).

2.7. Industrial Decarbonization: Technological Pathways and Implementation Strategies

The transition of industrial sectors to low-carbon technologies represents a critical frontier in global decarbonization efforts. Recent research has yielded significant insights into various technological solutions and implementation strategies across different industrial contexts.

2.8. Sector-Specific Decarbonization Approaches

Mansouri et al. (2023) (Contribution 10) conducted a comprehensive evaluation of refrigerant alternatives, demonstrating that R1234ze exhibits superior thermodynamic performance with the highest coefficient of performance (COP) and minimal annual equivalent warming impact (AEWI). Faraldo and Byrne’s (2024) (Contribution 11) systematic review of food industry decarbonization identified absorption heat transformers and high-temperature heat pumps as having the greatest decarbonization potential, despite waste heat recovery systems offering shorter financial payback periods. Maritime sector research by Issa et al. (2022) (Contribution 12) suggests that compliance with IMO CO₂ regulations requires either the synergistic implementation of multiple low-carbon technologies or fundamental technological paradigm shifts.

Geospatial analyses have informed national decarbonization strategies. Sechi et al. (2022) (Contribution 13) developed an energy–GHG emission matrix to characterize Italian industrial clusters, enabling the targeted decarbonization of energy-intensive sectors. Comparatively, Hou et al. (2022) (Contribution 14) performed a cross-national analysis of heating systems, proposing optimized decarbonization pathways for China’s diverse urban and rural contexts.

2.9. Facility-Level Decarbonization Analyses

Empirical studies have quantified decarbonization potentials at various operational scales. For manufacturing, Chowdhury et al. (2024) (Contribution 15) developed a simulation framework for fossil fuel boiler electrification, establishing conversion ratios for electrical boiler capacity. In cement production, Okeke et al. (2024) (Contribution 16) demonstrated carbon capture can reduce emissions intensity from 571–784 kgCO₂eq/ton to 166.33–438.66 kgCO₂eq/ton. With regards to logistics, Bhavani et al. (2022) (Contribution 17) modeled green technology investments in warehousing, projecting 87% emission reductions, and for institutional purposes, Li et al. (2021) (Contribution 18) applied life cycle assessment to quantify university food waste impacts (246.75 t/year → 539.28 tCO₂eq).

2.10. Corporate Energy Transition Dynamics

Organizational behavior studies reveal critical insights. Italian SMEs show limited energy transition engagement (37% adoption rate), as quantified by Thomas et al. (2024) (Contribution 19) through partial least squares regression. Lin et al. (2025) (Contribution 20) optimized Taipei corporate energy portfolios using system dynamics, identifying auxiliary service applications as key to improving green energy ROI.

3. Conclusions

This compilation of articles is devoted to exploring pathways for the global energy transition and low-carbon technology. Collectively, these 20 studies demonstrate that achieving industrial decarbonization requires, to some extent, a synthesis in the future, including technology innovation (alternative fuels, efficiency improvements), policy-market coordination mechanisms, enhanced energy system modeling capabilities, cross-sectoral collaboration frameworks, and socio-technical behavior transformations. The research underscores that addressing the energy transition’s technical and economic complexities will demand sustained interdisciplinary efforts and breakthrough innovations across all industrial sectors.

Looking beyond the contributions included in this Special Issue, the broader academic and practical literature provides additional critical insights that must be incorporated into a comprehensive transition strategy. One such insight is the growing recognition of the circular economy as a cornerstone of a sustainable energy future. Circular economy principles, including material efficiency, recycling, product-life extension, and remanufacturing, are increasingly being applied to key sectors such as steel, aluminum, plastics, and electronics. Studies estimate that the full implementation of circular practices in these sectors could reduce global CO₂ emissions by as much as 40% by 2050 [31,32]. Furthermore, advances in battery recycling technologies exemplify how circularity and technological innovation can converge to produce both environmental and economic benefits. Lithium-ion battery recycling, in particular, has seen significant progress through the development of electrochemical recovery processes capable of efficiently extracting critical metals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, achieving recovery rates exceeding 95% while drastically lowering the environmental footprint of electric vehicle batteries [33]. These developments suggest that technological innovation and circularity must advance in tandem, ensuring resource efficiency while supporting the widespread adoption of clean energy technologies.

The power sector, as the backbone of decarbonization efforts, faces both technical and operational challenges that necessitate innovative solutions. The integration of variable renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, requires advanced energy storage systems capable of maintaining grid stability during periods of low generation or high demand. Long-duration energy storage (LDES) technologies, including flow batteries and compressed-air storage, are now being recognized as economically viable solutions, particularly as renewable penetration approaches high thresholds [34,35]. Such technologies not only provide temporal flexibility but also help to mitigate grid congestion, reduce the curtailment of renewable generation, and enable the integration of distributed energy resources. Simultaneously, novel approaches to land-use optimization, such as agrivoltaics—which combines agricultural production with solar installations—have demonstrated the potential to increase land-use efficiency by up to 70% while simultaneously reducing water evaporation from crops, highlighting the synergies between renewable energy deployment and sustainable agriculture [36]. These examples illustrate that multifunctional system designs can deliver environmental, energy, and social co-benefits, underscoring the importance of holistic planning approaches in the energy transition.

Finance also plays a critical role in driving the transition. Analyses of global investment patterns indicate that although green finance has experienced substantial growth in recent years, it remains heavily concentrated in developed economies, with emerging markets often facing barriers to capital access [37]. To address this imbalance, scholars have proposed a range of de-risking mechanisms, including blended finance instruments, public guarantees, and concessional loans, designed to attract private investment to renewable energy and energy efficiency projects in developing regions [38]. In parallel, innovative financial frameworks, such as the “carbon beta” approach, have been developed to explicitly integrate transition risks into corporate valuation models. By accounting for potential regulatory, market, and technological shifts, this framework is reshaping investment strategies in high-carbon industries, encouraging the reallocation of capital toward low-carbon alternatives and signaling a growing alignment of financial markets with climate objectives [39]. Together, these developments underscore the centrality of finance in enabling systemic change and highlight the need for coordinated policy, market, and institutional mechanisms to support a globally equitable energy transition.

At the consumer and societal level, behavioral insights increasingly inform the design of effective low-carbon interventions. Experimental research demonstrates that default settings, such as offering renewable electricity as the standard choice for households and businesses, can substantially increase adoption rates without restricting consumer autonomy, with observed effects persisting for multiple years [40]. Behavioral nudges, social norms, and community-based interventions have been shown to complement technological incentives, reflecting the complex interplay between individual decision-making and social context [41]. From an urban planning perspective, large-scale mitigation measures such as cool pavements, green roofs, and urban greening can significantly reduce energy demand for cooling, particularly in hot climates, by up to 35%, illustrating the role of spatial design in complementing technological and policy-based interventions [42]. These findings indicate that shaping consumer behavior and urban form is a vital component of any comprehensive energy transition strategy.

The ethical and social dimensions of decarbonization are equally fundamental. The concept of a “just transition” emphasizes fairness, inclusivity, and the protection of vulnerable communities during periods of structural economic change. Policies must address potential dislocations among workers and communities dependent on fossil-fuel-based industries to prevent social unrest, maintain public trust, and ensure broad societal support for low-carbon policies [43]. Ethical considerations also extend to issues of global equity, recognizing that high-emission nations bear disproportionate responsibility for historical emissions while many low-income countries face greater vulnerability to climate impacts. The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report reaffirms that the window for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C is rapidly closing, yet technically feasible and cost-effective pathways remain available, contingent upon unprecedented levels of international cooperation, political commitment, and societal engagement [44].

In conclusion, the energy transition represents one of the most profound and complex challenges of the 21st century. It requires the simultaneous transformation of technological systems, industrial operations, financial and policy frameworks, and social practices. The 20 studies collected in this Special Issue, together with a broader body of research, demonstrate that a successful transition will depend not only on breakthrough technological innovation but also on integrated policy design, financial mobilization, behavioral adaptation, and ethical governance. The insights provided by these contributions form a critical foundation for guiding both research and practice, offering pathways to a low-carbon, sustainable, and resilient energy future. Achieving these objectives will demand sustained interdisciplinary collaboration, international coordination, and the continuous generation of knowledge capable of informing actionable strategies across multiple scales and sectors.