Energy Transformation of Road Transport Infrastructure—Concept and Assessment of the Electric Vehicle Recharging Systems

Abstract

The energy transformation of transport infrastructure represents a significant challenge, being implemented along the TEN-T network under the introduced AFIR regulation (Regulation for the Deployment of Alternative Fuels Infrastructure). The goal of this transformation is the development of alternative fuels infrastructure deployed along the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T), dedicated to light-duty electric vehicles (eLDVs) and heavy-duty electric vehicles (eHDVs). The measures undertaken must be preceded by an analytical process assessing the assumptions outlined in the AFIR regulation, defining targeted actions for achieving the regulation’s objectives, and evaluating the baseline status as well as projected conditions for the years 2025, 2027, 2030, and 2035. This assessment is essential during the planning and management stages of the energy transformation process of transport infrastructure being undertaken by individual EU Member States. Meeting the targets set by AFIR for transport infrastructure necessitates the development of appropriate research tools. The approach proposed in this article offers an innovative framework for addressing the challenges of energy transformation. The initial step involves designing a model for the energy transformation of transport infrastructure, followed by the definition of indicators to assess the implementation of AFIR objectives. This paper presents a model for the energy transformation of road transport infrastructure, defines the individual elements of the model, specifies indicators for evaluating the transformation process, and conducts a research study incorporating these components. This article aims to elucidate the core aspects of the energy transformation of transport infrastructure, identify actions aligned with achieving the objectives of the AFIR regulation, and perform an evaluation of its implementation. Additionally, the research addresses the question of how the energy transformation of road transport infrastructure is unfolding in Poland. The study is based on the structure of electric vehicles (EVs) and transport infrastructure along the TEN-T network in the territory of Poland. The current level of AFIR compliance for eLDVs for the years 2025, 2027, 2030, and 2035 is approximately 175%, 96%, 37%, and 13%, respectively. In contrast, for eHDVs, the compliance level is around 20%, 0%, and 0% for the TEN-T core network, and approximately 10%, 3%, and 0% for the TEN-T comprehensive network.

1. Introduction

The European transport sector is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions in Europe. Since 1990, transport-related emissions have been continuously increasing, in contrast to the downward trends observed in other economic sectors. The primary source of these emissions is the combustion of diesel and gasoline in internal combustion engines across land, water, and air transport modes. In 2024, road transport accounted for 73% of total transport-related greenhouse gas emissions in the EU, followed by aviation at 13.8%, maritime transport at 12.7%, and rail transport at 0.4%. The primary source of emissions within the road transport sector is passenger cars, which are responsible for 43.7% of greenhouse gas emissions from the entire transport sector in the EU and account for 59.86% of all emissions originating from road transport. Heavy-duty vehicles and buses accounted for 20.1% of transport-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, light commercial vehicles for 8.4%, and motorcycles for 0.9%. It is important to note that these emissions occur during the operational phase of vehicles, predominantly in proximity to roads, urban areas, waterways, and in the atmosphere. Reducing transport emissions can be achieved by increasing vehicle efficiency or by shifting to alternative, low-emission fuels. In 2019, within the European road transport sector, diesel fuel was used in 66.7% of vehicles, while gasoline-powered vehicles represented 24.55%.

As part of the search for an alternative fuel or energy source, electricity was adopted as propulsion energy carrier. This initiative marks the first stage of the energy transition in the transport sector. As a consequence of the proposed shift, efforts have been undertaken in the design, production, marketing, and promotion of electric vehicles (EVs) both on global and European automotive markets. It is important to note that the term electric vehicles (EVs) encompasses a wide range of transport modes, including light-duty electric vehicles (eLDVs), electric heavy-duty vehicles (eHDVs), electric buses (e-buses) [1], trolleybuses, trams, trains, ships, boats, airplanes, electric bicycles and scooters [2], and other personal electric mobility devices. Within the EV category, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are distinguished by their use of one or more electric motors powered exclusively by electricity stored in onboard rechargeable battery systems. These batteries are designed for repeated charging from external electricity sources. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have also been introduced, representing the most technologically advanced category of electric vehicles. These vehicles are equipped with a fuel cell system in which hydrogen is converted into electricity through an electrochemical process. All electric vehicles can be classified as zero-emission, which contributing to the reduction of transport-related emissions in the areas where these vehicles are operated [3]. These initiatives have led to a noticeable increase in the sales of electric vehicles, particularly in two market segments: passenger cars and buses. Sales and interest in eLDVs and eHDVs have also been observed among companies in the transport and courier sectors. A separate category of vehicles is represented by hybrid vehicles, which are classified as low-emission due to their dual propulsion systems–combining an internal combustion engine with an electric motor. This category includes hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).

As a result of efforts to reduce transport emissions, a total of 10,632,381 new passenger cars were registered in the European Union in 2024. Among these, electric vehicles (EVs) accounted for 13.6% of registrations, hybrid vehicles (HEVs and PHEVs) made up 31%, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs) represented 0.01%. By contrast, the share of vehicles powered by conventional fuels was 33.3% for gasoline-powered vehicles and 11.9% for diesel-powered vehicles.

The production, sale, and use of electric vehicles mark the beginning of the proposed energy transition in the transport sector [4]. It should be emphasized that electric vehicles represent the future of modern transport. This is particularly important in the case of taxis, which constitute one of the primary means of transportation in urban areas. Replacing conventional taxis entirely with electric taxis is a key element of sustainable urban transport strategies [5]. The type of available and applicable fuels determines the types of vehicles in use, which in turn creates the need to adapt infrastructure to support electric vehicles [6].

The implementation of alternative energy sources for vehicle propulsion necessitates the development of transport point infrastructure, such as electric vehicle charging stations and hydrogen refueling stations. These facilities are essential components of the alternative fuels infrastructure. In the initial phase, EV charging stations were primarily constructed in urban areas, which significantly limited the usability of electric vehicles outside cities. Similarly, hydrogen refueling stations were mainly established to support public transportation systems operating in urban environments. However, the growing number of EVs has driven the expansion of charging infrastructure along non-residential roadways, including national roads, expressways, and motorways. It is important to note that the development of EV charging and hydrogen refueling infrastructure is progressing at varying rates across EU member states. Future efforts should also focus on the development of energy storage systems dedicated to electric vehicles [7].

To ensure the balanced development of alternative fuels infrastructure across EU member states, Regulation (EU) 2023/1804 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 September 2023 on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure was introduced, repealing Directive 2014/94/EU [8]. This regulation, known by the acronym AFIR (Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation), has been in force since 13 April 2024. AFIR aims to support the development of alternative fuels infrastructure through the implementation of specific targets to be achieved by the end of 2025 and 2030.

The aim of this article is to present the essence of the energy transition process in road transport infrastructure based on the AFIR regulation, to define actions aimed at achieving the regulation’s objectives, and to conduct an assessment of AFIR implementation six months prior to the 2025 deadline for meeting its established targets. The evaluation process will be carried out using the example of the energy transition of road transport infrastructure along the TEN-T network in Poland.

An essential aspect of the research process is to address the question of how the energy transition of road transport infrastructure is progressing in Poland, which, as an EU member state, is obligated to fulfill the assumptions and targets set forth by the AFIR regulation.

The article is divided into five sections. The first section provides the introduction, followed by a literature review in the second section. The third section presents a model of the energy transition process for transport infrastructure in accordance with the objectives and targets of the AFIR regulation. The fourth section focuses on the assessment of the energy transition process of road transport infrastructure carried out within Poland. The fifth and final section summarizes the conclusions drawn from the conducted research.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Transport Energy Transformation Towards Low and Zero Emission Transport

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), CO₂ emissions from the transport sector reached almost 8 billion tons in 2022, accounting for about 23% of global emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Preliminary data for 2023/2024 indicate a further small increase of about 0.8% globally, making it the fastest growing sector in terms of final energy consumption emissions [9]. The most promising strategy is low- and zero-emission technologies, based primarily on vehicle electrification and the use of hydrogen. At this stage, it is important to reduce CO₂ emissions throughout the entire life cycle of electric vehicles. It is also necessary to consider the method of accounting for carbon dioxide emission allowances in the energy market settlement process, specifically in relation to the trade of electricity intended for electric vehicles [10]. Equally important are the energy distribution systems dedicated to electric vehicles [11], the organization of charging systems [12,13], the energy trading system [14], the forecasting of electrical load [15], and the safety of electric vehicle charging systems [16].

Thanks to the high efficiency of battery electric drives and the possibility of smart charging and integration of these vehicles with energy networks (Vehicle to Grid–V2G), it is possible to reduce the total costs of the energy system, according to [17] even by about 1.6% in the PyPSA Eur model (integrated simulation model of the energy system of Europe–Python for Power System Analysis Europe)—which shows the potential for synergy between transport and energy. The analysis by the authors of [18,19] confirms that electrification translates not only into emission reduction, but also into increased operational efficiency, although it creates new challenges related to infrastructure and battery recycling. The importance of multicriteria decision-making tools in transport planning is highlighted by [20], who developed a method to select scenarios for urban transport systems with varying shares of electric vehicles. Their work supports strategic decisions regarding the structure of urban mobility in light of emission, efficiency and cost factors.

In the area of heavy and long-distance transport, analyses indicate that hydrogen is a valuable complement to electrification, offering a long range and fast refueling. However, only hydrogen produced from renewable sources–via electrolysis powered by RES or nuclear energy–shows real decarbonization potential, as confirmed by the publication [21]. Conversely, hydrogen produced from natural gas without CO₂ capture is characterized by high trace emissions, exceeding 10 kg CO₂ per kilogram H₂, which limits the environmental benefits.

An important contribution to the discussion is presented in the study [22], where the authors assessed the real costs and barriers of BEV (Battery Electric Vehicle) and FCEV (Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle) technologies in road transport based on the Whole Systems system model. Their results show that although BEVs dominate in medium and light fleets, hydrogen gains a competitive advantage in the heavy vehicle segment when “immeasurable” costs–such as refueling time, load capacity limitations, and adaptation barriers–are considered. From the perspective of operational costs and environmental impact, the analysis by [23] offers comparative insight into different vehicle propulsion systems. The study confirms the significant emission reduction potential of BEVs and FCEVs, while also addressing the economic aspects that influence fleet operator decisions.

Public transport is another area where interest in low-emission technologies is growing rapidly. Although electric buses are gaining popularity thanks to MDPI (2023), there is a lack of data from real implementations, especially in countries outside Europe and the USA. The work [24] shows that zero-emission vehicles and drones in last-mile logistics have potential, but require coordinated technological and regulatory integration. At the same time, studies on low-emission zones (LEZs) indicate a slow adoption of truly zero-emission solutions, where initially hybrids and plug-in HEVs (Hybrid Electric Vehicles) dominated. A notable advancement in sustainable delivery logistics is presented by [25], who propose a delivery planning method in urban areas that incorporates environmental aspects. This model aids in optimizing transport scenarios by balancing emissions, congestion, and logistics performance.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analyses of individual vehicle types provide valuable data. For example study [26] presents Well-to-Wheel (WTW) comparisons of electric and hydrogen vehicles, indicating that the condition of low emission BEV depends on the source of electric energy. In turn, [27] distinguishes five EV (Electric Vehicle) models with the best LCA results—BYD Dolphin, Hyundai KONA, Jeep Avenger, Opel Corsa and Tesla Model 3—showing that electromobility can be truly ecological, as long as the production of batteries takes place in compliance with environmental standards. In terms of energy usage optimization, the work of [28] addresses the challenge of minimizing electricity consumption by municipal electric fleets amid charging uncertainties. Their results demonstrate how adaptive planning can improve energy use and cost efficiency in urban contexts.

An interesting perspective on cost and emission simulations in heavy transport is presented by [29] through a Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) model for different powertrain configurations of heavy goods vehicles, also taking into account infrastructure and real fleet data. Their forecasts show that with technological progress and policy support, zero-emission vehicles are becoming competitive. The challenges of planning under uncertainty are addressed by [30], who apply fuzzy logic as a tool for supporting transport development decisions. Their work is particularly applicable where input data is ambiguous or based on expert judgment, which is often the case in early-stage planning of electromobility systems.

However, the transformation of transport cannot be treated in isolation–it requires close integration with the global energy system based on renewable energy sources. The authors in the publication [31] emphasize the need to synchronize the production of vehicles and energy. Additionally, study [18], utilizing the PyPSA-Eur model, highlights significant cost savings in the integration of V2G and smart charging, which reduces the need for energy storage. In the area of energy systems [32] present the opportunity to adapt existing gas pipelines to the transmission of hydrogen, which translates into possible infrastructure savings.

System dynamics (SD) analyses, as in [33], show that dynamic models do not effectively take into account temporal dependencies and feedbacks, e.g., between technology adoption and network and policy needs, which limits the accuracy of transformation scenario forecasts. It seems that future research should focus on several key areas: detailed LCA and TCO modelling of heavy vehicles, non-road, rail, sea and air transport–especially using synthetic fuels (SAF, ammonia); implementation of V2G, AI and digital tools in logistics management; and behavioral and social analyses that take into account cultural norms, technological acceptance and educational mechanisms. Particular attention should be paid to countries of the Global South, where infrastructural, legislative and financial barriers may force other paths of technological transformation.

The transformation of transport towards a low- and zero-emission future requires at least parallel development of electric vehicles and hydrogen technologies, strong integration with green energy sources, adequate support policies, research towards social adoption and behavioral change (changes in attitudes and habits of users) and adaptation to local conditions of developing markets. Only an approach that is both interdisciplinary and global will create a real chance for sustainable transport of the future, consistent with the goals of climate agreements and the economic needs of societies.

Research gaps in light of the above text and in the context of the topic include:

• lack of spatial analyses linking charging infrastructure deployment to urban form, TEN-T corridors, and regional energy profiles [34],
• limited data from Central and Eastern Europe and insufficient methodologies for assessing infrastructure effectiveness in a systemic and social context,
• underexplored integration of AFIR regulations with national energy and transport strategies, including the role of local governance,
• no standardized indicators for evaluating AFIR compliance and infrastructure performance across regions,
• insufficient consideration of user behavior, social acceptance, and service quality in the planning of public charging infrastructure,
• fragmented treatment of hydrogen infrastructure and absence of long-term strategies for maintaining and upgrading AFIR-compliant networks beyond 2025.

2.2. Electromobility—Growth Dynamics, Characteristics of BEV and FCEV Vehicles

The transformation of the transport sector towards low and zero emissions is a process of fundamental importance in the context of global climate commitments, with electric vehicles playing a central role in this transition. According to a report [9] prepared by the International Energy Agency, global sales of electric vehicles in 2023 reached about 14 million units, which constituted an 18% share of new passenger car sales. This is a 35% increase compared to 2022. By the end of 2023, more than 40 million BEVs (Battery Electric Vehicles) and PHEVs (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles) were already on the roads around the world.

The main centers of electromobility development are China, Europe and the United States, which together account for over 90% of global EV sales [35]. In China, over 9 million electric vehicles were sold in 2023, and the share of EVs in new car sales exceeded 50% [36]. In Europe, the largest market share is held by Norway, the Netherlands and Germany, where supportive subsidy schemes and tax incentives led to EVs accounting for between 20% and over 80% of new vehicle registrations in 2023 [37]. In the USA, sales growth was supported by federal tax breaks under the act [38], although local data from 2024 indicate a slight slowdown in dynamics [39].

BEVs are currently the dominant type of electric drive. They are powered exclusively by an electric motor and supplied with energy stored in lithium-ion batteries. Their efficiency is over 85–90%, which significantly exceeds combustion engines (25–30%) [40]. Modern vehicles such as Tesla Model 3, Hyundai Ioniq 6 or Mercedes EQS offer a range of 400 to 700 km [41].

BEVs are increasingly used not only in the consumer sector, but also in public transport [42] and urban logistics. An example is Shenzhen in China, which in 2018 completed the full electrification of its entire fleet of city buses (over 16,000 vehicles), and then also of taxis [43]. Similar activities are being carried out in Amsterdam, Hamburg and Santiago de Chile [44].

According to the report [45], the number of electric buses in the world has exceeded 820,000 units. China accounts for over 60% of the entire global fleet of EV buses, while Europe is still catching up, with an average share of EVs in city bus sales at 12–15% [46]. At the same time, the segment of electric vans is being intensively developed–used, among others, by courier companies [47].

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) are electric vehicles in which energy is generated through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in a fuel cell. Their greatest advantage is short refueling time (3–5 min) and extended ranges–often exceeding 600–700 km. As a result, FCEVs are considered a complementary technology to BEVs, especially in long-distance and heavy transport [40,48].

However, the decarbonisation potential of hydrogen depends on its production method. Only the so-called green hydrogen, produced in the electrolysis process powered by renewable energy sources (RES), ensures substantial emission reductions. Hydrogen produced from natural gas without CO₂ capture (commonly referred to as grey hydrogen) generates emissions of 10–12 kg CO₂ per kilogram of H₂ [48,49].

Examples of FCEV implementations include the H2Haul project (EU), Hyundai XCIENT’s fleet of trucks in Germany and Switzerland, and Nikola and Hyzon’s operations in the U.S. A Whole Systems Analysis report from University College London found that FCEVs outperform BEVs in the heavy-duty vehicle sector when factors such as refueling times, payload constraints, and infrastructure availability are taken into account [50].

2.3. Segmentation of the Electromobility Market

The development of electromobility is not limited to the passenger car segment, although this category continues to dominate in terms registration number. Global markets show an increasingly distinct differentiation in the applications of electric vehicles, responding to the specific needs of the logistics sector [51], public transport [52,53], industry, car-sharing [54,55] and individual users. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss electromobility in the division into four basic segments: passenger cars, delivery vehicles, trucks and micromobiles.

The segment of electric passenger vehicles remains the most developed and diversified. The market offer today includes not only premium cars, such as Tesla Model S, Porsche Taycan or Mercedes EQS, but also city and compact vehicles, such as Fiat 500e, Renault Zoe, Opel Corsa Electric or Dacia Spring [41]. The key challenge remains to reduce the price of the vehicle and the availability of models in the economy class, which are most important in developing countries [9].

Chinese-made models have gained popularity in the European market, offering competitive range and pricing. According to data from the European Association of Automobile Manufacturers [56], in the first quarter of 2024, EVs accounted for over 14% of new registrations in the EU.

The electrification of light-duty vehicles (LDVs) is progressing rapidly, especially in countries with a growing share of e-commerce. For example, Amazon has ordered 100,000 Rivian electric vans for the US market [47], while in Europe, DHL and UPS are electrifying their delivery fleets as part of sustainable city logistics programs. LDVs are particularly well suited to electromobility due to their predictable routes, short daily distances, and the possibility of overnight charging.

The heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) segment poses a particular challenge for electromobility due to the weight of the batteries, limited range and high energy demand [57,58]. However, significant progress has been noticeable in recent years. Electric trucks manufactured by Volvo Trucks, Scania and Daimler offer ranges of 250–300 km and are implemented in regional logistics [59] and urban transport [60]. In Germany, tests of the so-called megawatt charging corridors (MCS–Megawatt Charging System) are underway, which are to serve HDV vehicles [9]. For longer distance transport, FCEV technology is more important–e.g., Hyundai XCIENT with hydrogen drive implemented in Switzerland and Germany [61].

Micromobility vehicles, such as scooters, e-bikes or electric scooters [62], are playing an increasingly important role in the structure of urban mobility [63]. According to the report [64], up to 30% of journeys in European cities can be replaced by light vehicles with a range of up to 10 km. Integrating micromobility with public transport can reduce congestion, improve air quality and reduce emissions [65,66,67]. Numerous cities have introduced public e-scooter rental systems (e.g., Paris, Berlin, Warsaw), although some–such as Paris in 2023–have withdrawn their presence from public spaces due to concerns over safety and regulatory control [68].

2.4. Impact of Electromobility on the Environment and Public Health

It is commonly assumed that electric vehicles do not emit CO₂ during operation. However, a comprehensive assessment of their impact on the environment requires the use of the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) methodology, covering the entire life cycle of the vehicle–from raw material extraction, through battery production, use, to end-of-life recycling. Well-to-Wheel (WTW) studies show that the carbon footprint of BEVs can be 50–70% lower than that of combustion vehicles–provided that the energy comes from renewable energy sources [69,70].

The study [69] showed that BEV production is more emission-intensive (mainly due to the battery). However, this difference is eliminated after a mileage of about 50,000 km–or as early as 20,000 km when powered by clean energy sources. The production of lithium-ion batteries is associated with intensive consumption of resources: lithium, cobalt, nickel and graphite. These raw materials are predominantly sourced from regions including South America (lithium), the Democratic Republic of Congo (cobalt) and China (graphite), which creates environmental and social challenges. An important aspect at this stage involves research focused on the recycling of used batteries from end-of-life electric vehicles [71,72,73]. This process is often referred to as the “second life” of batteries and is directly linked to end-of-life battery management [74], battery life cycle assessment (LCA) [75], and the principles of sustainable development [76,77]. An alternative approach under consideration is the use of sodium-ion batteries in electric vehicles.

Electromobility also contributes to improving health conditions in cities. Electric vehicles are much quieter, thereby reducing noise pollution—one of the main factors influencing stress, sleep disorders and cardiovascular diseases [78]. In addition, the lack of exhaust emissions (NO_x, PM10) improves air quality, especially in congested urban areas. In Paris, after the introduction of low-emission zones and an increase in the share of EVs in the city fleet, a 30% reduction in NO₂ concentration was recorded within 3 years [79].

2.5. Electromobility—Transport Infrastructure

The development of transport infrastructure dedicated to electromobility is an essential element of the energy and transport transformation [80]. Accelerating the electrification of the vehicle fleet worldwide would not be possible without the parallel development of an extensive and reliable network of charging points. The lack of such infrastructure would lead to the phenomenon of the so-called “range anxiety”, i.e., the fear of users running out of energy during the journey, which would significantly reduce their willingness to choose an electric vehicle. Modern charging infrastructure is not limited to physical stations—it also includes energy sources, interoperable payment systems, charging standards, integration with transmission networks and increasingly advanced tools for managing the charging process, such as smart charging or Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology.

According to data from the International Energy Agency [9], by the end of 2023, there were over 2.7 million public charging points in the world, of which about one million were fast or ultra-fast charging stations. The largest market in terms of the number of points installed is China, which accounts for about 60% of the global charging infrastructure. In Europe, this share is about 25%, while in the United States it is slightly less than 10% [9]. This regional imbalance is one of the main challenges for the unified development of the EV market on a global scale.

Charging infrastructure is categorized into three main types, differing in power and vehicle charging time. The most basic type is home AC chargers with a power of up to 22 kW. They are intended mainly for individual users and residents of multi-family buildings. Charging times with these units typically range from 6 to 12 h, depending on battery capacity and grid conditions. The second type is public DC chargers with a power of 50 to 150 kW, which can be found at shopping centers, petrol stations, transport hubs and in urban areas. They allow 80% battery charging in 30 to 45 min. The fastest solution is ultra-fast DC stations with a power of over 150 kW, which are installed along highways and transport corridors, especially in Europe and North America. Examples include the European network Ionity and the American Electrify America, which offer charging stations with capacities of up to 350 kW [81].

For the needs of heavy transport, the Megawatt Charging System (MCS) technology has been developed. This system enables charging of heavy goods vehicles at power levels up to 1.5 MW, significantly reducing charging times to durations acceptable for logistics operators. In Europe, pilots of this technology are being carried out as part of the Heavy Vehicle Charging Europe project, with the participation of companies such as Scania, MAN, Siemens and ABB [82]. MCS is anticipated to play a critical role in the process of electrification of heavy goods vehicles, where standard charging turns out to be insufficient in terms of both power and transmission infrastructure.

In the case of electric heavy-duty vehicles (eHDVs), a crucial aspect is the development of charging strategies that correspond to the available high-power charging systems designed specifically for heavy vehicles. Political and economic conditions related to the implementation of various charging systems and support for the electric vehicle sector play a significant role in this process [83]. These actions include the integration of medium- and high-power charging vehicles with the electrical grid [84]. The challenges of integration are detailed in the Resources for the Future Report 23-03 [85]. All these challenges ultimately contribute to achieving a zero-emission heavy vehicle fleet [86]. One proposed solution involves the use of swappable batteries, which reduces vehicle downtime during charging. The developed Battery-as-a-Service (BaaS) business model enables electric vehicle buyers to purchase vehicles and lease or subscribe to batteries [87]. Battery swapping systems are currently undergoing extensive testing in China.

An extremely important direction in the development of charging infrastructure are real-time energy management technologies [88,89]. Smart charging is a strategy in which vehicle charging is adjusted to the current state of the power grid, energy availability (including from renewable energy sources) and individual user preferences. This solution allows for the reduction of peak energy demand and increases the share of renewable energy sources in the energy mix. Research conducted in Germany and the Netherlands shows that the implementation of smart charging systems can reduce the costs of investment and operation of the network by 10–20% over a decade [90].

A more advanced form of integrating electromobility with the energy sector is the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, whereby electric vehicles function as temporary energy storage devices. V2G enables not only drawing energy from the grid, but also releasing it, e.g., during peak demand hours, which stabilizes the operation of the energy system and reduces the need to build additional energy storage facilities. Analyses [91] show that full integration of V2G technology in Europe could bring savings of EUR 150–200 billion by 2040, while reducing the demand for stationary energy storage facilities.

An effective charging infrastructure also requires a well-thought-out geographical location. Research conducted by [92] indicates that planning charging stations using predictive algorithms and GIS data allows for more effective coverage of the actual needs of users. For example, in Amsterdam, a predictive system was implemented ensuring that charging points are located no further than 400 m from each resident’s home, which significantly improved accessibility and user satisfaction.

The literature further indicates that the efficiency of infrastructure depends on factors such as: population density, availability of night charging (especially in multi-family buildings), integration with the public transport network and local availability of energy from renewable sources [46,93]. Only when these conditions are met is it possible to fully use the potential of the electromobility system [94].

However, the development of electromobility infrastructure encounters numerous barriers [95,96]. On the technical side, the most frequently indicated problem is the limited availability of connection power, especially in urban and suburban areas, where the network load is already high [97]. Additionally, the absence of standardized technical standards and communication protocols—different types of plugs, applications and payment systems limit the interoperability of charging stations. Furthermore, local infrastructure congestion is particularly problematic when charging entire fleets of vehicles at the same time, necessitating energy management solutions and investments in the transmission network.

From an economic and regulatory perspective, the development of ultra-fast charging stations is associated with very high costs–the construction of a single point with a capacity of over 150 kW can reach up to EUR 500,000. In many countries, especially developing ones, there is also a lack of public support mechanisms or credit systems for infrastructure investments. The unification of legal standards regarding the availability of information on the location of stations, connection power or charging prices is also insufficient, which prevents effective planning and integration of mobile applications in public transport systems.

At the social level, infrastructure development is met with resistance from residents–especially in housing estates, where the location of stations is associated with aesthetic, legal and land ownership issues. There is also a lack of widely available data on user behavior, their preferences regarding places and hours of charging, which makes it difficult to optimize the location of new stations. As noted by [69], understanding the behavioral patterns of EV users should be the foundation of any effective infrastructure strategy.

3. The Process of Energy Transformation of Transport Infrastructure

3.1. Materials and Methods

The energy transformation of transport infrastructure is directly driven by Regulation 2023/1804 of 13 September 2023 on the development of alternative fuels infrastructure (AFIR) [8], which has become the initiator regulating and stimulating the expansion of transport infrastructure. The analyzed process of energy transformation focuses on point road transport infrastructure located along the core and comprehensive TEN-T network. The examined transport infrastructure is intended for servicing light electric vehicles (eLDV) and electric heavy goods vehicles (eHDV).

The objective of the examined energy transformation process of transport infrastructure results directly from the AFIR regulation and consists in ensuring a balanced development of energy transport infrastructure in all EU Member States along the entire TEN-T network. This article focuses on the concept of energy transformation of road transport infrastructure as outlined by the AFIR regulation and addresses the assessment of the implementation of this transformation process specifically for road transport infrastructure located along the TEN-T network in Poland. The research methodology employed involves a case study analysis of the transformation process and an evaluation of the energy transformation of transport infrastructure along Poland’s TEN-T corridors. The empirical study was conducted using a multi-stage process of analysis and assessment of the energy transformation process of transport infrastructure, which consisted of four main stages, namely:

• Stage 1–analysis of the state of knowledge in the field of development of alternative fuel infrastructure (AFIR),
• Stage 2–development of a mathematical model of the energy transformation process of transport infrastructure,
• Stage 3–analysis of the feasibility of planning the electrification process of the bus fleet–a case study for Poland.

The research material was obtained from literature and materials made available by local government organizations, the state-owned Polish Association of New Mobility (psnm), and the Polish Automotive Industry Association (PZPM).

3.2. Model of the Energy Transformation Process of Transport Infrastructure

At the stage of research implementation, the process of energy transformation of transport infrastructure is conceptualized as an ordered set of four elements, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{E}\mathit{T}\mathit{T}\mathit{I}=〈\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T},\mathit{E}\mathit{V},\mathit{I}\mathit{T},\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R},\mathit{A}\mathit{E}\mathit{T}〉$$

(1)

where:

• $\mathit{E}\mathit{T}\mathit{T}\mathit{I}$—model energy transformation of transport infrastructure. The structure of the model energy transformation of transport infrastructure is shown in Figure 1 and the elements names in

  Table 1. Elements of the model $\mathit{E}\mathit{T}\mathit{T}\mathit{I}$.

  $\mathbf{Elements} \mathbf{of} \mathbf{the} \mathit{E}\mathit{T}\mathit{T}\mathit{I}$—Model Energy Transformation of Transport Infrastructure
  $\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T}$	Trans-European transport network	$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$	recharging station
  $\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$	set of electric vehicles	$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$	recharging point
  $\mathit{I}\mathit{T}$	transport infrastructure	$\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$	connector
  $\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}$	Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation	${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	recharging pool for eLDV
  $\mathit{A}\mathit{E}\mathit{T}$	assessment of the energy transformation process of transport infrastructure	${\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	recharging station eLDV
  ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$	core network	${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	recharging point for eLDV
  ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$	comprehensive network	${\mathit{C}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	connector for eLDV
  $\mathit{T}\mathit{C}$	set of transport corridors within the TEN-T network	${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	recharging pool for eHDV
  $\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$	set of light-duty electric vehicles	${\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	recharging station eHDV
  $\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}$	set of electric passenger car	${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	recharging point for eHDV
  $\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$	set of electric delivery vehicle	${\mathit{C}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	connector for eHDV
  $\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$	set of heavy-duty electric vehicles	$\mathit{L}\mathit{P}$	legislative process
  $\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$	set of battery electric vehicles	$\mathit{P}\mathit{R}$	purpose of the AFIR
  $\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$	set of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles	$\mathit{S}\mathit{P}$	set of specific purpose
  $\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$	set of hybrid electric vehicles	$\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$	set of derogations for eLDV
  $\mathit{F}\mathit{C}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$	set of fuel cell electric vehicles	$\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$	set of derogations for eHDV
  $\mathit{R}\mathit{S}$	recharging systems	$\mathit{A}\mathit{N}$	TEN-T network assessment indicator
  $\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$	transport infrastructure for LDV	$\mathit{A}\mathit{V}$	vehicle assessment indicator
  $\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$	transport infrastructure for HDV	${\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$	Polish transport infrastructure assessment indicator–basic assumptions resulting from AFIR
  $\mathit{R}\mathit{P}$	recharging pool	${\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$	Polish AFIR indicator

  ,
• $\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T}$—Trans-European transport network (TEN-T),
• $\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$—set of electric vehicles,
• $\mathit{I}\mathit{T}$—transport infrastructure,
• $\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}$—Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation, 2023/1804 [8],
• $\mathit{A}\mathit{E}\mathit{T}$—assessment of the energy transformation process of transport infrastructure.

The energy transformation process of transport infrastructure pertains to point-based transport infrastructure distributed along the Trans-European transport network (TEN-T). The TEN-T network encompasses major transport connections across the EU, including road, rail, air, sea, inland waterway and multimodal transport infrastructure and urban transport hubs. The development of the TEN-T network is regulated by Regulation (EU) 2024/1679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 on Union guidelines for the development of the trans-European transport network. The aim of the TEN-T network is to develop the possibilities of moving people and transporting goods within the EU. In this way, the TEN-T is to strengthen the social, economic and territorial cohesion of the EU countries. In addition, the network aims to establish an efficient cross-border transport system that will be free of gaps, bottlenecks, and missing transport connections. The TEN-T network is intended to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of transport on the natural environment and increase transport safety within the EU countries. The TEN-T network is composed of two main elements, distinguishing between two types of networks, namely:

$$\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T}=\left\{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}},{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}\right\}$$

(2)

where:

• ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$—core network,
• ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$—comprehensive network.

The TEN-T core network is a set of transport connections of strategic importance to the EU. It includes the most critical transport routes essential for the functioning of the single market and trade within the EU. In contrast, the TEN-T comprehensive network is a set of all TEN-T infrastructure, including both the core network and additional regional and national transport connections. In principle, the comprehensive network is to ensure the accessibility and connectivity of all regions in the EU and thus support and develop these regions.

Within the distinguished types of TEN-T networks, nine European transport corridors operate, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{T}\mathit{C}=\left\{{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{1}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{2}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{3}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{4}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{5}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{6}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{7}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{8}},{\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{9}}\right\}$$

(3)

where:

• $\mathit{T}\mathit{C}$—set of transport corridors within the TEN-T network,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{1}}$—Atlantic corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{2}}$—North Sea–Rhine—Mediterranean corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{3}}$—North Sea—Baltic corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{4}}$—Scandinavian—Mediterranean corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{5}}$—Baltic Sea–Adriatic Sea corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{6}}$—Rhine—Danube corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{7}}$—Mediterranean corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{8}}$—Western Balkans—Eastern Mediterranean corridor,
• ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{9}}$—Baltic Sea–Black Sea—Aegean Sea corridor.

When analyzing the process of energy transformation of transport infrastructure, it is essential to consider the types of vehicles for which this infrastructure is being developed. AFIR specifically addresses transport infrastructure intended for electric vehicles, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{E}\mathit{V}=〈\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V},\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}〉$$

(4)

where:

• $\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$—set of light-duty electric vehicles (eLDV), which includes vehicles of categories M1 (passenger cars) and N1 (vehicles with a permissible total weight of up to 3.5 tons; delivery vans),

$$\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=〈\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C},\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}〉$$

(5)

• $\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}$—set of electric passenger car,
• $\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$—set of electric delivery vehicle,
• $\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$—set of heavy-duty electric vehicles (eHDV), which includes vehicles of categories N2 (vehicles with a permissible total weight from 3.5 tons to 12 tons) and N3 (vehicles with a permissible total weight of over 12 tons; trucks).

Within the individual eLDV and eHDV vehicle groups, fully electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles are distinguished, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=〈\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V},\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}〉;\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=〈\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V},\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}〉$$

(6)

where:

• $\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$—set of battery electric vehicles,
• $\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$—set of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.

Additionally, within the groups of LDV and HDV vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell electric vehicles are distinguished, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=〈\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V},\mathit{F}\mathit{C}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}〉;\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=〈\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V},\mathit{F}\mathit{C}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}〉$$

(7)

where:

• $\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$—set of hybrid electric vehicles,
• $\mathit{F}\mathit{C}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}$—set of fuel cell electric vehicles.

The energy transformation implemented under the AFIR regulation refers to road transport infrastructure and concerns point elements of the analyzed infrastructure. In the study, the transport infrastructure was presented in the form of an ordered triplet, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{I}\mathit{T}=〈\mathit{R}\mathit{S},\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V},\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}〉$$

(8)

where:

• $\mathit{R}\mathit{S}$—recharging systems,
• $\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$—transport infrastructure for LDVs,
• $\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$—transport infrastructure for HDVs.

The energy transformation of road transport infrastructure implemented in accordance with the AFIR assumptions, takes into account a group of elements important for this process. The charging system consists of four elements involved in the process of charging electric vehicles (Figure 2), i.e.,:

$$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}=〈\mathit{R}\mathit{P},\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t},\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o},\mathit{C}\mathit{o}〉$$

(9)

where:

• $\mathit{R}\mathit{P}$—recharging pool. A recharging pool consists of one or more recharging stations located at a specific sit, which may include dedicated adjacent parking spaces [98]. A recharging pool can contain several recharging stations. According to AFIR, a recharging pool refers to one or more recharging stations at a specific location [8].
• $\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$—recharging station (also referred to as recharging pole, recharging dock, electric vehicle charging station). A recharging station is a physical object with one or more recharging points, sharing a common user identification interface [8]. According to AFIR, a recharging station is defined as a physical installation at a designated location, consisting of one or more recharging points [8].
• $\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$—recharging point (also referred to as recharging position, electric vehicle supply equipment). Electric energy is delivered through a recharging point. A recharging point may have one or several connectors (outlets or plugs) to accommodate different connector types [98]. According to the AFIR regulation, a recharging point station or pool dedicated to eLDV refers a recharging point, station or pool intended for the recharging of eLDV, due to the specific design of the connectors/plugs or the design of the parking space adjacent to the recharging point, station or pool, or both [8]. According to AFIR, a recharging point, station or pool dedicated to eHDV refers to a recharging point, station or pool intended for the recharging of eHDV, either due to the specific design of the connectors/plugs or the layout of the adjacent parking space, station pool, or both [8].
• $\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$–connector. A connector is the physical interface between the recharging station and the electric vehicle through which the electric energy is delivered [98]. According to AFIR, a connector refers to the physical interface between the recharging or refueling point and the vehicle through which the fuel or electric energy is exchanged [8].

Figure 2. Components of an electric vehicle charging system.

Figure 2. Components of an electric vehicle charging system.

Taking into account the characteristics of the vehicles, transport infrastructure is identified separately for eLDVs and eHDVs. The respective infrastructures are designated as follows:

$$\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=〈{\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{C}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}〉$$

(10)

where:

• ${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—recharging pool for eLDVs,
• ${\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—recharging station for eLDVs,
• ${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—recharging point for eLDVs,
• ${\mathit{C}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—connector for eLDVs.

$$\mathit{I}\mathit{T}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=〈{\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{C}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}〉$$

(11)

where:

• ${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—recharging pool for eHDVs,
• ${\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—recharging station eHDVs,
• ${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—recharging point for eHDVs,
• ${\mathit{C}\mathit{o}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—connector for eHDVs.

The examined process of energy transformation in transport infrastructure directly stems from the assumptions of the AFIR regulation, which has become a factor regulating and stimulating the expansion of transport infrastructure. In the research process, the AFIR regulation was structured into five ordered elements, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}=〈\mathit{L}\mathit{P},\mathit{P}\mathit{R},\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{V},\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V},\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}〉$$

(12)

where:

• $\mathit{L}\mathit{P}$—legislative process,
• $\mathit{P}\mathit{R}$—purpose of the AFIR regulation,
• $\mathit{S}\mathit{P}$—set of specific purpose,
• $\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$—set of derogations for eLDVs,
• $\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}$—set of derogations for eHDVs.

In the legislative process of the AFIR regulation four stages corresponding to individual decisions of the EU Council can be identified, namely:

$$\mathit{L}\mathit{P}=\left\{{\mathit{l}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{1}},{\mathit{l}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2}},{\mathit{l}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{3}},{\mathit{l}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{4}}\right\}$$

(13)

where:

• ${lp}_1$—stage 1: adoption by the EU Council of the AFIR regulation, 25 July 2023,
• ${lp}_2$—stage 2: publication of the AFIR regulation in the EU Official Journal, 22 September 2023,
• ${lp}_3$—stage 3: entry into force of the AFIR regulation, 12 October 2023,
• ${lp}_4$—stage 4: obligation to apply the AFIR regulation, 13 April 2024.

For EU Member States, Stage 4 is important as the AFIR regulation has been in force since 13 April 2024. For the purposes of implementing the regulation in EU Member States, the AFIR objective has been defined, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}\to \mathit{P}\mathit{R}$$

(14)

where:

• $\mathit{P}\mathit{R}$—the aim of AFIR is to ensure the even development of alternative fuels infrastructure in all EU Member States across the entire TEN-T network.

The research focused exclusively on the development of alternative fuel infrastructure, which is electricity. Thus, the AFIR goal is the even development of transport infrastructure for charging electric vehicles. For the purposes of achieving the goal, specific goals were defined for the charging infrastructure of electric vehicles, tailored to individual groups of eLDV and eHDV vehicles. The set of specific goals takes the following form:

$$\mathit{S}\mathit{P}=〈{\mathit{P}\mathit{O}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}〉$$

(15)

where:

• ${\mathit{P}\mathit{O}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—power output of publicly accessible recharging stations dedicated to eLDVs,

$${\mathit{P}\mathit{O}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}=\left\{{\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\right\}$$

(16)

• ${\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—for each BEV registered in the territory of a given EU Member State, a total power output of at least 1.3 kW is provided through publicly accessible recharging stations,
• ${\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—for each PHEV registered in the territory of a given EU Member State, a total power output of at least 0.8 kW is provided through publicly accessible recharging stations,
• ${\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—the obligation for Member States to fulfil the above requirements at the end of each year, starting from 2024,
• ${\mathit{p}\mathit{o}}_{\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—in the event that the share of eLDVs manufactured in a given country reaches at least 15%, the following cases are possible: (1) the possibility for the state to prove that further application of the requirement is disadvantageous and unjustified, (2) the possibility of obtaining permission from the European Commission to apply lower requirements, (3) the deadline for issuing a decision by the EC is six months,
• ${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—minimum coverage of publicly accessible recharging points dedicated to eLDVs—along the TEN-T core road network ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$,

$${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}=\left\{{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\right\}$$

(17)

• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2025, along of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$, each recharging pool must offer a power output of at least 400 kW and includes at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 150 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2025, publicly accessible recharging points must be deployed in each direction of travel,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2025, the maximum distance between publicly accessible recharging points must not exceed 60 km,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2027, along of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$, each recharging pool must offer a power output of at least 600 kW and include at least two recharging points with an individual power output of at least 150 kW,
• ${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—minimum coverage of publicly accessible recharging points dedicated to eLDVs—along the TEN-T comprehensive road network ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$,

$${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}=\left\{{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2035};\mathbf{5}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\right\}$$

(18)

• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2027, along at least 50% of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$, each recharging pool must offer a power output of at least 300 kW and include at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 150 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2027, publicly accessible recharging points must be deployed in each direction of travel,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2027, the maximum distance between publicly accessible recharging points shall not exceed 60 km,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2030, along at least 100% of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$, each recharging pool must offer a power output of at least 300 kW and include at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 150 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2035};\mathbf{5}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2035, along at least 100% of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$, each recharging pool must offer a power output of at least 600 kW and include at least two recharging points with an individual power output of at least 150 kW,
• ${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—minimum coverage of publicly accessible recharging points dedicated to eHDVs—along the TEN-T core road network ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$,

$${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}=\left\{{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{5}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\right\}$$

(19)

• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2025, along at least 15% of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$, publicly accessible recharging pools must offer a power output of at least 1400 kW and includes at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 350 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2025, publicly accessible recharging points must be deployed in each direction of travel,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2027, along at least 50% of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$, publicly accessible recharging pools must offer a power output of at least 2800 kW and include at least two recharging points with an individual power output of at least 350 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{r}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2030, along of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$, publicly accessible recharging pools must offer a power output of at least 3600 kW and include at least two recharging points with an individual power output of at least 350 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{5}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2030, the maximum distance between publicly accessible recharging pools shall not exceed 60 km,
• ${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—minimum coverage of publicly accessible recharging points dedicated to eHDVs—along the TEN-T comprehensive road network ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$,

$${\mathit{M}\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}_{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}=\left\{{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{5}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\right\}$$

(20)

• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2025, along at least 15% of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$, publicly accessible recharging pools must offer a power output of at least 1400 kW and include at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 350 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2025};\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2025, publicly accessible recharging points must be deployed in each direction of travel,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2027};\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2027, along at least 50% of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$, publicly accessible recharging pools must offer a power output of at least 1400 kW and include at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 350 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2030, along of the length ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$, publicly accessible recharging pools must offer a power output of at least 1500 kW and include at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 350 kW,
• ${\mathit{m}\mathit{p}}_{\mathbf{2030};\mathbf{5}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—by 31 December 2030, the maximum distance between publicly accessible recharging pools shall not exceed 60 km.

The AFIR regulation also specifies the permissible derogations that EU member states may introduce during the energy transformation of transport infrastructure. The derogations are provided separately for each group of electric vehicles. In the case of eLDVs, the set of permissible derogations takes the following form:

$$\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=\left\{{\mathit{d}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{l}\mathit{d}\mathit{v}}_{\mathbf{1}},{\mathit{d}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{l}\mathit{d}\mathit{v}}_{\mathbf{2}},{\mathit{d}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{l}\mathit{d}\mathit{v}}_{\mathbf{3}}\right\}$$

(21)

where:

• ${dfeldv}_1$—derogation 1 for eLDVs.
  By way of derogation from the above, along the TEN-T network, where the average daily traffic is less than 8500 LDVs and there is no socio-economic justification for infrastructure development, a recharging pool for eLDV (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) serving both directions of travel may be established.
• ${dfeldv}_2$—derogation 2 for eLDVs.
  By way of derogation along the TEN-T network, where the average daily traffic is less than 8500 LDVs and there is no socio-economic justification for infrastructure development, the total output capacity of the recharging pool for eLDV (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) may be reduced by a maximum of 50%.
• ${dfeldv}_3$—derogation 3 for eLDVs.
  By way of derogation along the TEN-T network, where the average daily traffic is less than 3000 LDVs, the maximum distance between recharging pools for eLDVs (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) may be extended from 60 km to 100 km. Condition: appropriate distance markings between recharging pools for eLDVs (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) must be provided.

However, in relation to eHDVs, the set of permissible deviations is a set that contains three specified deviations, i.e.:

$$\mathit{D}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}=\left\{{\mathit{d}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{h}\mathit{d}\mathit{v}}_{\mathbf{1}},{\mathit{d}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{h}\mathit{d}\mathit{v}}_{\mathbf{2}},{\mathit{d}\mathit{f}\mathit{e}\mathit{h}\mathit{d}\mathit{v}}_{\mathbf{3}}\right\}$$

(22)

where:

• ${dfehdv}_1$—derogation 1 for eHDVs.
  By way of derogation from the above, along the TEN-T network, where the average daily traffic is less than 2000 HDVs and there is no socio-economic justification for infrastructure development, a recharging pool for eHDVs (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) serving both directions of travel may be established.
• ${dfehdv}_2$—derogation 2 for eHDVs.
  By way of derogation along the TEN-T network, where the average daily traffic is less than 2000 HDVs and there is no socio-economic justification for infrastructure development, the total output capacity of the recharging pool for eHDVs (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) may be reduced by a maximum of 50%.
• ${dfehdv}_3$—derogation 3 for eHDVs.
  By way of derogation along the TEN-T network, where the average daily traffic is less than 3000 HDVs, the maximum distance between recharging pools for eHDVs (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) may be extended from 60 km to 100 km. Condition: appropriate distance markings between recharging pools for eHDVs (${\mathit{R}\mathit{P}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$) must be provided.

The assessment of the energy transformation process of road transport infrastructure will be carried out based on defined assessment indicators. For the purposes of the research, four groups of assessment indicators have been defined, i.e.,:

$$\mathit{A}\mathit{E}\mathit{T}=〈\mathit{A}\mathit{N},\mathit{A}\mathit{V},{\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}〉$$

(23)

where:

• $\mathit{A}\mathit{N}$—TEN-T network assessment indicator,

$$\mathit{A}\mathit{N}=〈{{\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T}},\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}},{\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}〉$$

(24)

• ${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T}}$—core network assessment indicator,

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(25)

• ${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}$—core network assessment indicator,

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(26)

• ${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}$—comprehensive network assessment indicator,

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(27)

• $\mathit{A}\mathit{V}$—vehicle assessment indicator,

$$\mathit{A}\mathit{V}=〈{\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}},{\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}},\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}},{{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}},{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}〉$$

(28)

• ${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}$—BEV assessment indicator; number of BEVs (number of eLDVs + number of eHDVs),

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(29)

• ${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—eLDV assessment indicator; number of eLDVs (number of electric passenger cars + number of electric delivery vehicles),

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(30)

• ${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$—BEV assessment indicator; number of electric passenger cars from the BEVs,

$${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(31)

• ${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$—PHEV assessment indicator; number of electric passenger cars from the PHEVs,

$${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(32)

• ${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$—HEV assessment indicator; number of passenger cars from the HEVs,

$${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(33)

• ${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—BEV assessment indicator; number of electric delivery vehicles from the BEVs,

$${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(34)

• ${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—HEV assessment indicator; number of delivery vehicles from the HEVs,

$${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(35)

• ${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—eHDV assessment indicator; number of eHDVs,

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(36)

• ${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$—BEV assessment indicator; number of eHDVs,

$${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}\to \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(37)

• ${\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$—Polish transport infrastructure assessment indicator–basic assumptions resulting from AFIR,

$${\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}=〈{\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}_{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}_{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}〉$$

(38)

• ${\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}_{\mathit{e}\mathit{L}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$—Polish transport infrastructure assessment indicator for eLDVs– basic assumptions resulting from AFIR along the TEN-T network,
• ${\mathit{I}\mathit{T}}_{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$—Polish transport infrastructure assessment indicator for eHDVs—basic assumptions resulting from AFIR along the TEN-T network,
• ${\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$—Polish AFIR indicator,

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}=\left\{{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},\dots ,{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathit{i}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}\right\}, i\in \mathbb{N}\cup \left\{\mathbf{0}\right\}$$

(39)

4. Energy Transformation of Road Transport Infrastructure—A Case Study

The case study will focus on evaluating the energy transformation process of road transport infrastructure based on the AFIR regulation, implemented within Poland. It should be noted that Poland, as a member state of the EU, is obligated to full fill the requirements set forth in the AFIR regulation. It should also be noted that two transport corridors passing through Poland are integral components of the TEN-T network. These corridors connect the Baltic Sea with the North Sea and the Baltic Sea with the Adriatic Sea, representing a significant element of trade exchange within Europe. This is particularly important for landlocked countries such as the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Consequently, the analysis and assessment of the energy transition of road transport infrastructure is considered crucial for the functioning and implementation of transport within the TEN-T network.

The starting point of the study was the identification of the parameters that Poland must meet in order to comply with the requirements of the AFIR regulation. For transport infrastructure on Polish roads intended for eLDV vehicles, the requirements are specified in

Table 2. AFIR requirements for eLDV infrastructure on Polish roads.

Parameter	Deadline
	2025	2027			2030			2035
Minimum number of charging zones along the TEN-T network [pcs.]	128	190	${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$	128	252	${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$	128	252	${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$	128
			${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$	62		${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$	124		${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$	124
Minimum total power output of all charging stations along the TEN-T network [MW]	51.2	95.4			114			151.2
Installed charging power in relations to the number of BEV and PHEV vehicles [MW]	412.4	859.5			1690.1			3728

${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$—core network TEN-T, ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$—comprehensive network TEN-T.

. In turn, the requirements for transport infrastructure intended for eHDV vehicles are presented in

Table 3. AFIR requirements for eHDV infrastructure on Polish roads.

Parameter	Deadline
	2025	2027	2030
Minimum number of charging zones along the TEN-T network [pcs.]	20 (every 120 km)	64 (every 120 km)	202	${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$	128
				${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$	74
Minimum total power of all charging stations [MW]	28	92.4–179.2	571.8

${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}$—core network TEN-T, ${\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}$—comprehensive network TEN-T.

.

The evaluation of the energy transition process of transport infrastructure has been divided into four stages:

• Stage 1: TEN-T network assessment indicator in Poland.
• Stage 2: Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland.
• Stage 3: Polish transport infrastructure assessment indicator.
• Stage 4: Polish AFIR indicator.

(1)

TEN-T network assessment indicator in Poland

The AFIR regulation pertains to infrastructure deployed along the TEN-T network. At the initial stage, the TEN-T network running through Poland will be evaluated. Two transport corridors pass through Poland, namely: ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{3}}$–North Sea–Baltic Corridor and ${\mathit{t}\mathit{c}}_{\mathbf{5}}$–Baltic Sea–Adriatic Sea corridor. The evaluation will focus on the TEN-T network located within Poland, with network length in both directions being a key parameter (see

Table 4. TEN-T network assessment indicator.

	${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{\mathit{T}\mathit{E}\mathit{N}-\mathit{T}}$	${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{1}}}$	${\mathit{A}\mathit{N}}^{{\mathit{C}\mathit{N}}_{\mathbf{2}}}$
Length of the TEN-T network in both directions	15,002 km	7624 km	7378 km

).

(2)

Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland

The alternative fuel infrastructure identified in the AFIR regulation is linked to the number of registered electric vehicles in each EU member state. To meet this requirement, an assessment of the structure of electric vehicles registered in Poland was conducted. The evaluation process covered the period from 31 December 2020, to 31 May 2025. The assessment results are presented in

Table 5. Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland—as of 31 December 2020.

Assessment as of 31 December 2020
Type of Vehicle	Number of Vehicles [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}$	10,880	-	-
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	10,041	-	-
${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	8834	-	-
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	839	-	-
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	191,596	-	-
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$

,

Table 6. Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland—as of 31 December 2021.

Assessment as of 31 December 2021
Type of Vehicle	Number of Vehicles [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}$	20,452	+87	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	18,795	+87	↑
${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	19,206	+117	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	1657	+97	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	325,136	+69	↑
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$

,

Table 7. Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland—as of 31 December 2022.

Assessment as of 31 December 2022
Type of Vehicle	Number of Vehicles [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}$	34,384	+68	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	31,249	+66	↑
${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	30,321	+57	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	3135	+89	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	475,807	+46	↑
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$

,

Table 8. Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland—as of 31 December 2023.

Assessment as of 31 December 2023
Type of Vehicle	Number of Vehicles [pcs.]		Change Indicator [%]
${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}$	57,091		+66		↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	51,211		+63		↑
${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	47,137		+55		↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	5880	5767	+87	-	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$		113		-
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	679,637		+42		↑
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$

,

Table 9. Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland—as of 31 December 2024.

Assessment as of 31 December 2024
Type of Vehicle	Number of Vehicles [pcs.]		Change Indicator [%]
${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}$	80,732		+41		↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	72,589		+41		↑
${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	68,866		+46		↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	8143	7949	+38	+37	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$		121		+7
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	954,340		+40		↑
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$

and

Table 10. Vehicle assessment indicator in Poland—as of 31 May 2025.

Assessment as of 31 May 2025
Type of Vehicle	Number of Vehicles [pcs.]		Change Indicator [%]
${\mathit{A}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}$	94,306		+16		↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	85,300		+17		↑
${\mathit{P}\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	85,413		+24		↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$	9006	8757	+10	+10	↑
${\mathit{B}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{e}\mathit{H}\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$		249		+105
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{C}}$	1,096,799		+14		↑
${\mathit{H}\mathit{E}\mathit{V}}^{\mathit{D}\mathit{V}}$

.

The assessment of the electric vehicle fleet structure at the end of 2020 showed that 10,880 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) were in operation in Poland. The structure of all types of electric vehicles as of the end of 2020 is presented in Table 5.

The assessment of the electric vehicle fleet structure at the end of 2021 indicated that 20,452 BEVs were in operation in Poland, representing an approximate 87% increase compared to 2020. The structure of all types of electric vehicles as of the end of 2021 is presented in Table 6.

The assessment of the electric vehicle fleet structure at the end of 2022 revealed that 34,384 BEVs were in operation in Poland, representing an approximate 68% increase compared to 2021. The structure of all types of electric vehicles as of the end of 2022 is presented in Table 7.

The assessment of the electric vehicle fleet structure at the end of 2023 showed that 57,091 BEVs were in operation in Poland, representing an approximate 66% increase compared to 2022. In 2023, the evaluation of the electric vehicle fleet included a classification into electric delivery vehicles (eDV) and heavy-duty electric vehicles (eHDV) (Table 8). It should be noted that only 113 eHDVs were in operation in Poland in 2023. The structure of electric vehicles at the end of 2023 is presented in Table 8.

The assessment of the electric vehicle fleet structure at the end of 2024 showed that 80,732 BEVs were in operation in Poland, representing an approximate 41% increase compared to 2023. An increase of 37% was also noted in the number of eDVs, while the number of eHDVs increased by only 7%. It should be emphasized that the annual growth rate of vehicle numbers for the respective groups, ranging from 38% to 46%, has slowed down. In 2023, the growth dynamics for the number of electric vehicles in the respective groups ranged from 42% to 87%. The structure of electric vehicles at the end of 2024 is presented in Table 9.

The assessment of the electric vehicle fleet structure at the end of May 2025 showed that 94,306 BEVs were in operation in Poland, representing an approximate 16% increase compared to 2024. It should be noted that these are partial data collected at the end of May 2025. An important piece of information at this stage is the sharp increase in the number of eHDVs from 121 to 249, which represents a 105.79% growth. The structure of electric vehicles at the end of May 2025 is presented in Table 10.

(3)

Polish transport infrastructure assessment indicator

The assessment of the transport infrastructure for electric vehicle charging in Poland includes elements of the $\mathit{R}\mathit{S}$ (recharging systems). The evaluation process was conducted from 31 December 2020, to 31 May 2025. The assessment results are presented in

Table 11. Polish transport infrastructure assessment—as of 31 December 2020.

Assessment as of 31 December 2020
$\mathbf{Element} \mathbf{of} \mathbf{the} \mathit{R}\mathit{S}$ Recharging System		Number of Stations/Points [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$		1364	-
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$	AC (alternating current)	912	-
	DC (direct current)	452	-
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$		2641	-
Structure of connectors
Type of connector		Percentage structure [%]	-
$\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$	Type 1 and 2	64	-
	CHdeMO	15	-
	CCS Combo 2	15	-
	Tesla	6	-

,

Table 12. Polish transport infrastructure assessment—as of 31 December 2021.

Assessment as of 31 December 2021
$\mathbf{Element} \mathbf{of} \mathbf{the} \mathit{R}\mathit{S}$ Recharging System		Number of Stations/Points [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$		1932	+41	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$	AC (alternating current)	1345	+47	↑
	DC (direct current)	587	+29	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$		3784	+43	↑
Structure of connectors
Type of connector		Percentage structure [%]
$\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$	Type 1 and 2	69	-	↑
	CHdeMO	13	-	↓
	CCS Combo 2	14	-	↓
	Tesla	4	-	↓

,

Table 13. Polish transport infrastructure assessment—as of 31 December 2022.

Assessment as of 31 December 2022
$\mathbf{Element} \mathbf{of} \mathbf{the} \mathit{R}\mathit{S}$ Recharging System		Number of Stations/Points [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$		2565	+32	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$	AC (alternating current)	1813	+34	↑
	DC (direct current)	752	+28	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$		5016	+32	↑
Structure of connectors
Type of connector		Percentage structure [%]
$\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$	Type 1 and 2	72	-	↑
	CHdeMO	11	-	↓
	CCS Combo 2	15	-	↑
	Tesla	2	-	↓

,

Table 14. Polish transport infrastructure assessment—as of 31 December 2023.

Assessment as of 31 December 2023
$\mathbf{Element} \mathbf{of} \mathbf{the} \mathit{R}\mathit{S}$ Recharging System		Number of Stations/Points [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$		3282	+27	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$		5933	+18	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$	AC (alternating current)	4390	-	-
	DC (direct current)	1543	-	-
Structure of connectors
Type of connector		Percentage structure [%]
$\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$	Type 1 and 2	67	-	↓
	CHdeMO	10	-	↓
	CCS Combo 2	21	-	↑
	Tesla	2	-	=

,

Table 15. Polish transport infrastructure assessment—as of 31 December 2024.

Assessment as of 31 December 2024
$\mathbf{Element} \mathbf{of} \mathbf{the} \mathit{R}\mathit{S}$ Recharging System		Number of Stations/Points [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$		4610	+40	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$		8659	+45	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$	AC (alternating current)	5992	+36	↑
	DC (direct current)	2667	+72	↑
Structure of connectors
Type of connector		Percentage structure [%]
$\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$	Type 1 and 2	63	-	↓
	CHdeMO	10	-	=
	CCS Combo 2	26	-	↑
	Tesla	1	-	↓

and

Table 16. Polish transport infrastructure assessment—as of 31 May 2025.

Assessment as of 31 May 2025
$\mathbf{Element} \mathbf{of} \mathbf{the} \mathit{R}\mathit{S}$ Recharging System		Number of Stations/Points [pcs.]	Change Indicator [%]
$\mathit{R}\mathit{S}\mathit{t}$		5458	+18	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$		9814	+13	↑
$\mathit{R}\mathit{P}\mathit{o}$	AC (alternating current)	6621	+10	↑
	DC (direct current)	3193	+19	↑
Structure of connectors
Type of connector		Percentage structure [%]
$\mathit{C}\mathit{o}$	Type 1 and 2	60	-	↓
	CHdeMO	10	-	=
	CCS Combo 2	29	-	↑
	Tesla	1	-	=

.

The assessment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure at the end of 2020 revealed that Poland operated 1364 recharging stations and 2641 recharging points. An important factor in the charging process is the availability of specific connector types, which was also evaluated. In Poland, type 1 and type 2 connectors were predominant, accounting for 64% of all available connectors at stations and points. The overall structure of the electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Poland as of the end of 2020 is presented in Table 11.

The assessment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure at the end of 2021 showed that Poland operated 1932 recharging stations and 3784 recharging points. Compared to 2020, this represents an increase of 41% in the number of recharging stations and 43% in recharging points. Type 1 and type 2 connectors remained dominant, accounting for 69% of all available connectors at stations and points. The overall structure of the electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Poland at the end of 2021 is presented in Table 12.

The assessment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure at the end of 2022 revealed that Poland operated 2565 recharging stations and 5016 recharging points. Compared to 2021, this corresponds to an increase of 32% in both the number of recharging stations and recharging points. The overall structure of the electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Poland at the end of 2022 is presented in Table 13.

The assessment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure at the end of 2023 showed that Poland had 3282 recharging stations and 5933 recharging points in operation. Compared to 2022, this represents an increase of 27% in the number of recharging stations and 18% in recharging points. It is important to note that the annual growth rate of stations and points has slowed down. In previous years, growth rates were 41%, 43%, and 32%, whereas in 2023, they declined to 27% and 18%, respectively. Additionally, data for 2023 only included the number of AC and DC points, without providing figures for the number of AC and DC stations. The overall structure of the electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Poland at the end of 2023 is presented in Table 14.

The assessment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure at the end of 2024 indicated that Poland operated 4610 recharging stations and 8659 recharging points. Compared to 2023, this corresponds to an increase of 40% in the number of recharging stations and 45% in recharging points. The growth dynamics in 2024, with rates of 40% and 45% respectively, represent a significant increase compared to 2023. The overall structure of the electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Poland at the end of 2024 is presented in Table 15.

The assessment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure as of the end of May 2025 showed that Poland had 5458 recharging stations and 9814 recharging points in operation. Compared to 2024, this represents an increase of 18% in the number of recharging stations and 13% in recharging points. It should be noted that these are partial data collected up to the end of May 2025. The overall structure of the electric vehicle charging infrastructure in Poland at the end of May 2025 is presented in Table 16.

(4)

Polish AFIR indicator

The Polish AFIR indicator represents progress in the development of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles, specifically eLDVs and eHDVs, along the TEN-T network. The AFIR indicator assessment includes six indicators, namely:

$${\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}=\left\{{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{1}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{2}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{3}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{4}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{5}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}},{\mathit{a}\mathit{f}\mathit{i}\mathit{r}}_{\mathbf{6}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}\right\}$$

(40)

where:

• ${afir}_1^{PL}$—charging station power indicator; represents the current level of implementation of AFIR regulation assumptions regarding the total output power of all stations dedicated to eLDVs
• ${afir}_2^{PL}$—indicator of the number of recharging pools along the TEN-T core network meeting AFIR power requirements for eLDVs,
• ${afir}_3^{PL}$—indicator of the length of the TEN-T core network covered by recharging pools that fulfill AFIR requirements for eLDVs,
• ${afir}_4^{PL}$—indicator of the number of recharging pools along the TEN-T comprehensive network meeting AFIR power requirements for eLDVs,
• ${afir}_5^{PL}$—indicator of the number of recharging pools along the TEN-T core network meeting AFIR power requirements for eHDVs,
• ${afir}_6^{PL}$—indicator of the number of recharging pools along the TEN-T comprehensive network meeting AFIR power requirements for eHDVs.

The evaluation of the Polish AFIR indicator was conducted from 31 July 2024, to 30 April 2025. Due to the lack of publicly available periodic data regarding the AFIR indicator for Poland, the assessment was performed for four specific dates. The individual values of the AFIR indicator are presented in

Table 17. Polish AFIR indicator—as of 31 July 2024.

Assessment as of 31 July 2024
$\mathbf{Polish} \mathbf{AFIR} \mathbf{Indicator} {\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$	Cut-Off Dates Specified in AFIR
	2025	2027	2030	2035
${afir}_1^{PL}$ [%]	86	42	19	8
${afir}_2^{PL}$ [%]	23	17	no	no
${afir}_3^{PL}$ [%]	8.5	3	no	no
${afir}_4^{PL}$ [%]	no	13	6.5	5.5
${afir}_5^{PL}$ [%]	10	3	0	no
${afir}_6^{PL}$ [%]

no—no obligation in this respect.

,

Table 18. Polish AFIR indicator—as of 31 October 2024.

Assessment as of 31 October 2024
$\mathbf{Polish} \mathbf{AFIR} \mathbf{Indicator} {\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$	Cut-Off Dates Specified in AFIR
	2025	2027	2030	2035
${afir}_1^{PL}$ [%]	151	69	27	10
${afir}_2^{PL}$ [%]	24	19	no	no
${afir}_3^{PL}$ [%]	9	3.5	no	no
${afir}_4^{PL}$ [%]	no	15	7	6.5
${afir}_5^{PL}$ [%]	20	0	0	no
${afir}_6^{PL}$ [%]	10	3	0	no

no—no obligation in this respect.

,

Table 19. Polish AFIR indicator—as of 31 January 2025.

Assessment as of 31 January 2025
$\mathbf{Polish} \mathbf{AFIR} \mathbf{Indicator} {\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$	Cut-Off Dates Specified in AFIR
	2025	2027	2030	2035
${afir}_1^{PL}$ [%]	169	74	30	11
${afir}_2^{PL}$ [%]	28	23	no	no
${afir}_3^{PL}$ [%]	11	4	no	no
${afir}_4^{PL}$ [%]	no	15	7	6.5
${afir}_5^{PL}$ [%]	20	0	0	no
${afir}_6^{PL}$ [%]	10	3	0	no

no—no obligation in this respect.

and

Table 20. Polish AFIR indicator—as of 30 April 2025.

Assessment as of 30 April 2025
$\mathbf{Polish} \mathbf{AFIR} \mathbf{Indicator} {\mathit{A}\mathit{F}\mathit{I}\mathit{R}}^{\mathit{P}\mathit{L}}$	Cut-Off Dates Specified in AFIR
	2025	2027	2030	2035
${afir}_1^{PL}$ [%]	175	96	37	13
${afir}_2^{PL}$ [%]	30	25	no	no
${afir}_3^{PL}$ [%]	13	6	no	no
${afir}_4^{PL}$ [%]	no	18	9	6.5
${afir}_5^{PL}$ [%]	20	0	0	no
${afir}_6^{PL}$ [%]	10	3	0	no

no—no obligation in this respect.

.

5. Conclusions

The AFIR Regulation on the development of alternative fuels infrastructure obliges EU Member States to undertake actions aimed at the development of transport infrastructure for users of electric and hydrogen-powered vehicles. The starting point for AFIR was the noticeable lack of infrastructure adapted for charging electric vehicles. Although infrastructure development was taking place, it was primarily concentrated in urban areas. Infrastructure expansion along roads outside built-up areas was very limited. In response to this shortage, actions were initiated to develop alternative fuels infrastructure along the TEN-T network. Specific requirements were defined to be met during the design and construction stages of alternative fuels infrastructure. Moreover, deadlines were established for meeting these requirements, namely: 31 December 2025, 31 December 2027, 31 December 2030, and 31 December 2035. The requirements were differentiated based on the type of vehicles and the segment of the TEN-T network for which the infrastructure is to be developed.

Based on this, the objective of the article was to present the essence of the energy transformation process of road transport infrastructure based on the AFIR regulation, to define the actions aimed at achieving the goals of the regulation, and to carry out an assessment process of the implementation of the activities provided for in the AFIR regulation. An important part of the research process was also to present the course of the energy transformation of road transport infrastructure in Poland, in accordance with the assumptions and objectives of the AFIR regulation. A review of the literature clearly indicated a lack of analyses, studies, and assessments regarding the energy transformation of transport infrastructure implemented in line with AFIR requirements. Deficiencies were also noted in the interpretation and mathematical formulation of the analyzed process, which, in the authors’ opinion, is crucial for conducting an effective assessment of how EU Member States are fulfilling the requirements set out in the AFIR regulation. In line with the assumptions adopted by the authors, the developed model of energy transformation of transport infrastructure will be applied during the implementation of simulation studies for scenarios of electric vehicle charging zone development along the TEN-T network.

The article presents a case study of transport infrastructure located in the territory of Poland. The analysis covered data from 31 December 2020 to 31 May 2025 concerning the number of electric vehicles and the state of road transport infrastructure. In turn, in relation to the Polish AFIR indicator, the study was conducted from 31 July 2024 to 30 April 2025. Why was research on the assessment of transport infrastructure undertaken? Because the first deadline for achieving the objectives set out in the AFIR regulation expires in six months.

The assessment based on the Polish AFIR indicator as of 30 April 2025, showed that the current level of compliance with the total output power requirement of charging stations for eLDVs set by AFIR for the years 2025, 2027, 2030, and 2035 is achieved at approximately 175%, 96%, 37%, and 13%, respectively. Considering the TEN-T core network, the power requirements for charging zones for 2025 and 2027 are fulfilled at about 30% and 25%, with network coverage at only approximately 13% and 6%, respectively. For the TEN-T comprehensive network, the power requirements for charging zones for the years 2027, 2030, and 2035 are met at approximately 18%, 9%, and 6.5%, respectively. In contrast, the assessment based on the Polish indicator as of 30 April 2025, showed that the current level of compliance with the power requirements for eHDV charging zones along the TEN-T core network for 2025, 2027, and 2030 is approximately 20%, 0%, and 0%, respectively. For the TEN-T comprehensive network, the power requirements for eHDV charging zones for 2025, 2027, and 2030 are met at about 10%, 3%, and 0%, respectively.

The defined Polish AFIR indicator showed that the readiness level of alternative fuel infrastructure along the TEN-T network in Poland is low. This is especially evident in the case of infrastructure for eHDVs, where the readiness level is very low, practically at 0%.

Based on the research conducted and considering the complexity of the studies, future research areas have been identified, which will constitute a continuation of this article. The planned future work includes:

• Conducting survey research with charging station operators, users of charging stations, and local government authorities,
• Carrying out field studies focused on specific charging stations and points,
• Analyzing the implementation status of the AFIR regulation in other EU member states, particularly neighboring countries such as Lithuania, Germany, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia,
• Adapting the proposed model according to the assumptions relevant to the analyzed neighboring countries,
• Developing guidelines to support the decision-making process for AFIR regulation implementation in individual EU member states.