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Review

Thermal Energy Storage in Bio-Inspired PCM-Based Systems

by
Kinga Pielichowska
1,*,
Martyna Szatkowska
1 and
Krzysztof Pielichowski
2,3,*
1
Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, Department of Glass Technology and Amorphous Coatings, AGH University of Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
2
Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Department of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Cracow University of Technology, ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland
3
Interdisciplinary Center for Circular Economy, Cracow University of Technology, ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(13), 3548; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133548
Submission received: 25 May 2025 / Revised: 18 June 2025 / Accepted: 28 June 2025 / Published: 4 July 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Continuous growth in energy demand is observed throughout the world, with simultaneous rapid consumption of fossil fuels. New effective technologies and systems are needed that allow for a significant increase in the use of renewable energy sources, such as the sun, wind, biomass, and sea tides. Currently, one of the main research challenges refers to thermal energy management, taking into account the discontinuity and intermittency of both energy supply and demand. Phase change materials (PCMs) are a useful solution in the design and manufacturing of multifunctional materials for energy storage technologies such as solar cells and photovoltaic systems. In order to design efficient PCM-based systems for energy applications, ideas and behaviors from nature should be taken account as it has created over millions of years a plethora of unique structures and morphologies in complex hierarchical materials. Inspirations for nature have been applied to improve and adjust the properties of materials for energy conversion and storage as well as in the design of advanced energy systems. Therefore, this review presents recent developments in biomimetic and bio-inspired multifunctional phase change materials for the energy storage and conversion of different types of renewable energy to thermal or electrical energy. Future outlooks are also provided to initiate integrated interdisciplinary bio-inspired efforts in the field of modern sustainable PCM technologies.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, rapid growth in energy demand and consumption has been observed. On the other hand, the exhaustion of fossil fuels creates a necessity of using renewable energy sources, such as the sun, wind, and biomass. The main research challenge includes the design and manufacturing of new generation of materials for energy technologies, such as solar cells, photovoltaic systems, and phase change materials (PCMs) for thermal energy storage and conversion. New advanced multifunctional PCM-based systems should fulfill not only requirements typical for basic PCMs but should be incorporated to more complex systems and devices that allow for conversion of different types of energy. To design new, efficient PCM-based systems for energy applications, ideas and behaviors from nature—a continual source of inspiration—should be taken into account.
Thermal energy management can be difficult due to discontinuity and intermittency of both supply and demand, resulting in low utilization efficiency. Useful solutions are offered by phase change materials that over the past few decades have been applied for thermal management purposes. In PCMs, the thermal energy is stored or released during reversible phase transitions in the form of latent heat that allow for the accumulation of a large amount of heat in relatively a small volume of material compared to traditional heat storage methods [1,2,3]. Application of PCMs has allowed for elaboration of thermal management techniques that become an efficient way to utilize thermal energy and are characterized by operational simplicity and high energy storage density [4,5,6].
On the other hand, there are still some issues and problems that need to be solved in the energy storage area, and for this purpose, inspiration can be taken from nature. Careful observation shows how the problem of thermal energy demand and supply is solved by living organisms, and such solutions can motivate researchers to imitate nature, especially in manufacturing of biomimetic and bio-inspired complex PCM-based systems for highly effective thermal energy storage and conversion.
This review presents recent developments in the promising field of biomimetic and bio-inspired multifunctional phase change materials (PCMs) for the energy storage and conversion of different types of renewable energy to thermal or electrical energy.

2. PCMs in Nature

Taking into account the origin of organic PCMs, they can be divided into bio-based PCMs and non-bio-based PCMs. In general, the bio-based PCMs can be obtained from renewable and biological sources, such as animals or plants, and they are generally environmentally friendly. The non-bio-based PCMs can be classified as paraffin and nonparaffin PCMs, as presented in Figure 1.
As can be seen in Figure 1, most widely applied PCMs can be obtained both from natural sources and by using a synthetic approach. However, the main advantages of bio-based PCMs are their eco-friendly character, sustainability, biodegradability, and often low price and availability.
Some of the most popular and widely used bio-based PCMs are fatty acids with general formula CH3(CH2)2n-COOH. They are characterized by numerous beneficial properties, such as the desired melting temperature for a given application, high heat of phase transition and heat capacity, small supercooling and volume change during phase transitions, and low vapor pressure in liquid phase. Moreover, they are non-toxic and show good chemical and thermal stability even after many heating/cooling cycles. Fatty acids can be mixed to obtain eutectic mixtures [7]. In general, with an increase of carbon atom number in fatty acid molecules the melting points and heat of phase transition also increase. Importantly, fatty acids with an even number of carbon atoms in the molecule are characterized by a higher melting point and heat of phase transition than those with odd numbers of C-atoms. Such tendency is connected to more regular alignment and a more dense crystalline lattice due to the hydrogen bonding between the carboxylic acid molecules [1,8].
Fatty acids can be obtained from different natural and sustainable sources. Since prehistoric times, fats including fatty acids were extremely significant and have been applied as food, for cooking, in natural medicine, lighting, cosmetics, etc. Some basic information on timeline of fatty acid source discovery and applications was presented in Figure 2.
The first information on vegetable oils and animal fats dates back to Mesopotamia (7000 BC), where they were used for cosmetic applications. It is known that ca. 2000 BC, people used scented oils for mummification and as cosmetics. They used oils from many sources such as linseed and poppy seeds, cedars, palms, olives, avocados, but also from animals like fish, hippopotami, or crocodiles. Later, the ancient Greeks and Romans elaborated new methods for the production of oils by distillation and seed pressing. In the Middle Ages they were still used as cosmetics, for hygiene, and in medical applications. Later, with the evolution of organic chemistry, production methods were changed to industrial scale, but chemical modification of oils was also elaborated, including saponification. More recently, rapid development of novel industrial applications in the area of fats and lipids has been observed, e.g., PCMs [9].
Currently, they are also applied in thermal energy storage systems as effective phase change materials. In general, today, the most important sources of fatty acids are vegetable oils and fats. Many plant species are rich in fatty acids, especially in palmitic (C16:0) (PA), stearic (C18:0) (SA), oleic (18:1) (OA), and linoleic (18:2) (LA) acids. Fatty acid content varies depending on the kind of plant—Table 1.
The second source of fatty acids are animal fats, and different types of fatty acids can be found in fats originating from animal species. Nizar et al. [38] revealed that lard and chicken fat contains mainly palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids, while in beef and mutton fats, palmitic, stearic, and oleic acid are the major fatty acids. Another source of fatty acids is microalgae. By processing microalgae’s fatty acids with hydrocarbon chains between 4 and 36 carbons can be obtained, including saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids [39]. Fatty acids can be applied as PCMs after purification or in the form of mixtures with other PCMs [7,40,41,42,43] as eutectic mixtures. For example, Su et al. [44] tested eutectic composite PCM composed of ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA), aluminum nitride (AlN), and the eutectic mixture of LA and SA with melting point 37 °C, where EVA acts as shape stabilizer for eutectic PCM. Modification with AlN allowed for improving the heat transfer and mechanical properties of PCM composites. Latent heat of 107.94 J/g and high thermal conductivity of 0.726 W/m⋅K were reported. Noteworthily, fatty acids can be also applied directly in the form of natural oils and their composites. Hence, Li et al. [45] investigated composite PCMs obtained from wood fiber and coconut oil and modified with boron nitride for thermal management in buildings. Coconut oil is renewable and natural PCM with a phase change temperature 10 °C and latent heat of melting ca. 103 J/g. The obtained composites were able to enhance the thermal performance of building envelopes by delaying the temperature rise and by suppressing the temperature fluctuations. Souissi et al. [46] studied PCM composites prepared from spent ground coffee powder, beeswax, and low-density polyethylene. Beeswax is another type of organic origin PCM with melting point ca. 50 °C and heat of phase transition 175 J/g, with much lower unit price than popular synthetic PCMs. The obtained biocomposite composed of 70% of beeswax, 10% of coffee, and 20% of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) exhibited heat of phase transition 136.9 J/g and acceptable supercooling degree. Nicolalde et al. [47] investigated avocado seed oil obtained by steam extraction as PCM. They revealed the solid–liquid phase transition in the range −27 °C to 15 °C that is suitable for conservation of various food products.
In general, PCMs obtained directly from the plants and animals, being environmentally friendly and sustainable, can be applied in broad spectrum of applications. According to Circular Economy principles, their further use in thermal energy storage will undoubtedly grow in various industrial sectors.

3. Thermal Energy Conversion and Storage in Nature

Over billions of years of evolution living organisms have elaborated unique mechanisms and sophisticated hierarchical structures for efficient thermal regulation and utilization of light and thermal energy. In modern materials engineering biological structures provide inspiration for innovative design of advanced materials and systems dedicated to thermoregulation and utilization of the thermal energy. In biological systems thermal energy is often converted into other forms of energy such as mechanical energy, chemical energy, or even electrical energy that are crucial for life of the living organisms. For instance, antifreeze beetles living in Alaska possess antifreeze proteins (AFPs) with energy storage ability, cryoprotectants, and black surface that makes a smart thermal management system protecting them from extreme weather conditions. Ji at al. [48] speculated about the energy storage behavior of AFP and compared them with pure water as presented in Figure 3. They found that an AFP solution to achieve an equilibrium low temperature requires more time than pure water (Figure 3A). Additionally, because of the ability of AFP to bind with water molecules, heats of phase transitions of AFP water solutions are ca. 12% higher than that of pure water and, consequently, AFP with water can store and release more energy and protect beetle from low temperatures (Figure 3B). As can be seen from Figure 3C, antifreeze beetles absorb light through their black surface, and, thanks to photothermal conversion ability, can store the obtained thermal energy by AFPs water solution in liquid state (right). Without sunlight (left) at night or in cold weather, heat is released through the crystallization of AFP with water to maintain a suitable temperature.
Another example of energy storage in nature was found in the Afro-alpine plant Lobelia teleki. In the structure of this plant, there is a large number of long thin leaves arranged in a rosette with a more than 2 m tall cylindrical inflorescence protected by a mass of long, silvery, hairy bracts—Figure 4.
Inside the inflorescence there is a central viscous fluid with very low osmotic activity. In Figure 4b, the temperatures in the air, the central fluid, and in inflorescence during the day are presented. In the evening the temperature of the fluid drops to 0 °C and remains at 0 °C throughout the night, while the ambient air temperature drops from −5 to −10 °C. Central fluid freezes every night and the plant uses the heat of crystallization released from the freezing central fluid as a heat source that protects the plant [49,50].
In other kinds of plants, such as the genera Lobelia or Senecio and Espeletia plants in the South American Andes mountains, the rain water is trapped between the rosette leaves or in dead leaves and seems to freeze every night with releasing heat during freezing acting as a thermal protection operating on the same principle as phase change materials [50].

4. PCMs in Bio-Inspired Systems

Natural materials, morphologies, structures, nanostructures, and hierarchical structures occurring in plants, animals, and other living organisms have attracted considerable attention of researchers aiming at improving the properties of (synthetic) materials for energy conversion and storage. Moreover, many PCMs undergo solid–liquid phase transition and it is necessary to take action to avoid leakage above the melting point. In this context, bio-inspired structures can be applied, such as cell-like structure microcapsule confinement, plant-like porous structures to obtain shape-stabilized PCMs, or cobweb-like structure fibrous confinement [51]. Examples of bio-inspired PCM-based systems have been presented in Table 2.
Along this line of interest, Xu et al. [56] proposed spectrally selective composite PCMs based on Zn/SiC composite and dipentaerythritol with high solar absorption to enhance solar–thermal storage efficiency that was inspired by the thermoregulation strategies of polar bears—Figure 5. The main part of polar bears thermoregulative system is black skin that efficiently absorbs solar energy and converts it into thermal energy and dense fur that prevents body heat loss through infrared radiation. In the bottom, there is a fat layer that improves the thermoregulation [51].
In the designed system, copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) act to some extent as polar bear skin, enhancing solar absorption; Zn foil serves a role of polar bear fur by reducing infrared heat radiation loss; while SiC/PCMs mimic the polar bear fat layer, storing the thermal energy obtained by conversion from the solar energy. The obtained multilayered material shows high thermal conductivity of up to 14 W/mK and a heat of phase transition of 195.1 kJ/kg with the solar energy storage efficiency improved from 54.56% to 81.65% at 500 K. Ji et al. [48] elaborated composite film by impregnation of organic paraffin-based PCM in a surface-modified MXene/bacterial cellulose aerogel that was inspired by the energy storage behavior of antifreeze systems in beetles. The obtained composite aerogel-based PCM film exhibited enhanced properties such as loading capacity of organic and latent heat of PCM, improved mechanical properties, and good photothermal conversion capacity with and without simulated sun irradiation.
An interesting bio-inspired approach was presented by Li et al. [83], who mimicked the thermoregulation behavior of cyprinid fish to elaborate a quick-responsive and overheating-protective strategy. PCM-based liquid was infused into flexible polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/graphite foam (LPG) to obtain material with a high solar absorbance of ~97%—Figure 6. Under direct solar illumination, the obtained system, driven by gravity, is able to adhere to solid PCM surfaces, maintaining stable high speeds of 0.66 mm/min in the solid liquid loading interface. The composite can store solar heat as latent heat, at high efficiency of 92.9%, and maintain the original latent heat storage capacity of PCMs. When charged under solar lighting, foam sinks with gravity, enabling superfast charging without safety concerns. Above the melting temperature, excessive heat generation causes the formation of bubbles in the LPG foam that move upwards in the direction of the PCM boundary and halt the charging process.
The proposed bio-inspired dynamic sinking and floating-based charging system provides a widespread strategy for superfast, large-capacity, intelligently controlled Solar-thermal energy storage (STES) in various PCMs and can improve safety in case of overheating, which may be dangerous in many application areas, such as the aerospace industry. Liu et al. [84] presented formable PCM-based system with a hierarchical structure of solvent-responsive supramolecular networks obtained using poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/wood composites inspired by the muscle structure—Figure 7. The elaborated system exhibited low stiffness and pliability that was attributed to the weak hydrogen bonding between wood fibers (mainly cellulose) and PVA macrochains. Incorporation of PEG into the PVA/wood gel facilitated formation of hydrogen bonds and leads to elevating the tensile strength from 10.14 to 80.86 MPa and stiffness from 420 MPa to 4.8 GPa. Moreover, the obtained system is solvent-responsive, with transition between flexible and rigid states in water and PEG solutions.

5. Application of Bio-Inspired PCMs

5.1. Buildings

According to IEA CO2 Emissions in 2022, about 30% of global final energy consumption and 26% of global energy-related emissions are connected to buildings. Due to such large energy demands in buildings, efficient thermoregulation, heat transfer, and storage are of crucial importance in this big industrial sector. For more efficient utilization of solar energy, thermal energy storage and electricity production in buildings integrated with PV need to be optimized and combined with energy storage systems that allow for effective energy charging in daytime and discharging at nighttime to meet energy demands [57]. Also, in this area, researches can take inspiration from nature. Huang et al. [57] proposed and experimentally tested the PVT-PCM/EG biomimetic system for regulating of PV panels. They used a tree branch shape to reduce the quantity of the PCM/EG composite and increase the heat transfer area. Authors revealed that PVT-PCM/EG systems are able to regulate the PV temperature rise and sustain the heat after heating off more significantly than the system with chunk PCM composite. In general, the biomimetic design maximizes heat transfer efficiency and the performance of PV systems.
August et al. [51] proposed a prototype of a textile membrane for absorption of solar energy made from a sandwich structure of knitted fabrics inspired by polar bear fur—Figure 8.
In the proposed approach, solar energy transported by means of air flow is absorbed by the knitted fabrics. Fabrics were designed as translucent for solar radiation and having a porous channel, where air can flow through. Under knitted fabrics, black foil was placed, which represents the skin of the polar bear. In the deeper layer, paraffin-based PCM was integrated into the textile roof. PCM can help to store thermal energy and to use it later. The experimental and numerical results revealed that heat can be stored and buffered for few hours within the locally integrated storage systems.

5.2. Energy Conversion and Storage

Liu et al. [53] elaborated a biomimetic PCC, with a centrosymmetric and multidirectionally aligned boron nitride (BN) network embedded in PEG as a solar thermoelectric generator (STEG) combined with thermal energy storage system that allows for power generation in spite of interruption of the solar radiation flow—Figure 9. Authors mimic the water transportation microstructures within towering conifer trees to prepare a multidirectionally aligned and 3D interconnected BN network to form phonon-embedded pathways to realize rapid heat transfer all over the bulk phase change composite. The conifer tree has developed an efficient hydraulic system that reduces water supply resistance and increases pump pressure when the vertically aligned xylem vessels for water supply are parallel to the trunk, while the radial-aligned microchannels ensure good transportation from the central xylem to the borders and leaves.
PEG/BN composite with a multidirectional but 3D interconnected BN network with high thermal conductivity was obtained. The BN loading was 11.65 vol% and enabled rapid and uniform heat dissipation. Latent heat of fusion of the composite was 147.5 J/g and under a localized light source, the photothermal energy conversion efficiency was 85.1%.
Zhao et al. [85] proposed pyramidal graphitized chitosan/graphene aerogels, inspired by the waterlilies that bloom by day and close by night. The aerogels consist of radially oriented layers, where the radial alignment of graphene sheets was achieved by directional freezing strategy (Figure 10). The obtained graphitized chitosan/graphene aerogels/PEG PCC was characterized by heat of phase transition of ca. 179 J/g, and high solar–thermal energy conversion efficiency up to 90.4%.
Composite material inspired by the muscle system was proposed by Qui et al. [58], who obtained a shape-stabilized PCM via in situ polymerization of polyurethane in wood. The prepared PCC exhibited a tensile strength of 96.5 MPa along the longitudinal direction, which was considerably larger than for unmodified PCM. Moreover, it was characterized by heat of phase transition up to 95.4 J/g and a photothermal conversion efficiency of 83.2%. Feng et al. [60] elaborated the layered bionic wood films by immobilization of diol eutectic PCM with discoloration/chromogenic leaching in wood. The obtained wood film exhibited phase change enthalpy up to 155.5 J/g with phase change temperature at ca. 30 °C. Another approach was presented by Wang et al. [59]. The authors designed capsules inspired by the calabash structure, aiming at improving the thermal performance of PCM in thermal energy storage system. In the bionic calabash-shaped capsule, the melting time of PCM was reduced by 18.2% compared to the sphere capsule. Yu et al. [61] studied bionic conch and bionic mitochondrial encapsulation models for PCMs, including heat transfer performance—Figure 11.
The thermal energy storage efficiency of the bionic conch structure surpassed that of the bionic mitochondrial and straight-fin structures by 234%, 43.11%, and 14.62%, respectively. Such effect was attributed to the spiral fins that considerably amplify the heat exchange surface area. Increasing fins empower the thermal energy storage efficiency four-fold and thermal response rate by over six-fold, respectively. Yao et al. [63] developed bionic paraffin-based PCM capsules, inspired by the complex, folded shape and inner membrane of chloroplast granum to obtain fast latent heat TES system—Figure 12.
It has been found that the chloroplast fin-type PCM capsule was characterized by much faster heat storage compared to the spherical shape PCM capsule. As a result, the PCM melting time inside the packed-bed filled with chloroplast fin-type capsules was shorter by 33.2%, and the average exergy storage rate and exergy efficiency were improved by 48.4% and 8.3%, respectively, in comparison to the system filled with spheric capsules. To improve the thermal storage performance of shell-and-tube PCM TES units by reducing the dead zones, Gao et al. [64] applied a new technique to improve heat transfer inspired by the air channel distribution inside the root of a lotus—Figure 13. The results of numerical simulations revealed that in the bionic lotus root-type TES unit, compared to the single-tube TES unit, total melting time was reduced by 89.1%, the average temperature increased by 13.2 °C, and the average effective power density was 7.6 times higher.
Similar approach was presented by Ren and Yao [66], who elaborated a high-temperature PCC inspired by the okra seed—Figure 14.
The SiC biomimetic ceramic skeleton with unique macropores and axially crosslinked fibrous heat transfer pathways significantly enhanced the thermal storage efficiency of molten-salt-based PCC. The obtained PCC had high thermal conductivity (up to 31 W/m⋅K) and latent heat of 207 J/g, as well as good thermal reliability after 500 cycles in the temperature range 400–700 °C. Finally, a cooling system with latent heat TES, inspired by palmate leaf-shaped fins, was developed by Huang et al. [67] to enhance the effectiveness of power usage in data centers. The performance of palmate leaf-shaped finned TES systems was considerably better than those of traditional ones, and charge and discharge time was shorter by 21.0% and 38.2%, respectively. Authors postulated that the maximum reduction in annual power consumption with using of bio-inspired TES was ca. 2.4 MW⋅h, and the payback period was 2.0 years.

5.3. Anti-/Deicing

The ice and frost accumulation is a serious security problem in many areas of life and technology, for example, in buildings, wind turbine blades, electric power networks, communication towers, aircrafts, and transportation. Also in this area, PCM-based systems can help to avoid undesired icing. Hence, Sheng et al. [86] developed a wood bio-inspired photo/electrothermal superhydrophobic phase change system for anti-/deicing applications. Wood, in its structure, possesses distinctive vertical channels that are an excellent template for PCM loading and prevent PCM leakage above melting point. Polypyrrole particles were applied to impart photo/electrothermal properties, and a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) and carbon nanotubes were used to encapsulate PCMs within the wood channels to fabricate superhydrophobic and light-absorbing/conducting coatings. The obtained system exhibited stable heat of phase transition and good optical absorption, high thermal conductivity, and photo/electrothermal conversion efficiency up to 96.7%. In another work, Sheng et al. [49] studied PCM made of EG, paraffin, and PDMS for solar–thermal conversion and release/storage of thermal energy. It had a melting point of ca. 5 °C and heat of melting 106 J/g and was able to convert solar light into thermal energy and thermal energy storage/release for de-icing purposes.

5.4. Textiles

In the clothing industry, the polar bear may be the primary inspiration from nature. It has thick, oily fur covered with hollow hairs to effectively reflect infrared radiation from its body. Incorporating fibers with properties analogous to polar bear fur into fabrics could significantly reduce heat loss in humans, while simultaneously generating energy to warm the body. The widespread adoption of such materials in everyday clothing could lead to a substantial reduction in the energy required for heating indoor environments, as well as impart thermoregulation properties [87,88,89]. Wang et al. [77] proposed various applications for a material inspired by polar bear fur, particularly as a protective barrier against high temperatures. They prepared poly(amic acid) (PAA) fibers through freeze-spinning and freeze-drying techniques. Furthermore, the PAA fibers were infiltrated with 1-octadecanol, serving as a PCM. The size of the pores is closely related to the production process—a larger temperature difference at a given temperature stage indicates enhanced thermal insulation properties, which become even more pronounced at higher temperatures. For instance, when the stage temperature rises from 25 °C to 300 °C, ΔT for the fiber with the smallest average pore size (25 ± 8.4 μm) increases from 2.3 °C to 78.5 °C. Infiltrated polyimide textile was tested in terms of thermoregulation of the microclimate near human skin—Figure 15.
Another bio-inspired example of using PCMs in textiles is linked to thermocamouflage. In nature, one can observe three types of camouflage: static (leaf butterflies, leaf insects, pygmy seahorses), dynamic (panther chameleons, cephalopods), and infrared adaptability (polar bears, Sahara silver ants, and butterflies) [90]. Using different types of camouflage, cuttlefish scatter white light through the flexible skin [91,92]. Polar bears use their thick fur, composed of porous hairs, to effectively reflect their body’s infrared emissions and are even undetectable by infrared cameras [74,93,94]. To minimize infrared response, Lyu et al. [95] proposed nanofibrous Kevlar aerogel films modified by PCMs based on poly(ethylene glycol), eicosane, and stearic acid. These films demonstrate ability to provide thermal camouflage by minimizing infrared signatures. This property is particularly advantageous for stealth applications in military and surveillance technologies, as well as in wearable devices and adaptive thermal management systems—Figure 16.
In this field of research, Liu et al. [96] modified Kevlar fibers by PCM under vacuum aiming at infusing PEG with molecular weight 1000 into aerogel fibers. The prepared fibers were characterized by significant thermal resistance due to nanoporous structure, and Kevlar aerogels could be used in extreme environments. The main area of application are fiber materials for harsh environments insulation layers and thermal protective clothing with high mechanical strength. In another work, Li et al. [97] proposed to use graphene in place of Kevlar nanofiber. The first step was the preparation of the GO sheet and graphene aerogel fibers. The next step was dipping the fiber inside the melted PCM inside a vacuum oven to infuse PEG or paraffin inside the material. Subsequently, smart fiber was obtained by coating the material with fluorocarbon resin. Under thermal management, the produced material was characterized by highly effective energy storage (enthalpy up to 186 J/g) and good mechanical properties (flexibility and strength). The last important feature is superhydrophobicity, which imparts self-cleaning properties to the fibers, which is similar to the behavior and properties of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)—the so-called lotus effect: thanks to the microscopic structures covering the leaves and the wax layer, the water forms drops that collect dirt and impurities as they run down [98,99]. In the animal world, examples include butterflies, a species whose wings have microstructures that repel water and dirt.

5.5. Electronics

New developments in this field were presented by Liu et al. [100], who used bamboo as a structure presenting with a porous shape modified by silicon powders to form BSiC/Si. Additionally, titanium nitride (20 nm) was loaded on BSiC ceramics for further improving spectral absorption—Figure 17.
The use of bamboo as a material for pyrolysis resulted in the achievement of a microstructure characterized by hierarchical pore structure with small pore size contributing to tight and interconnected conductive transport, and large pore size for PCM storage. Additionally, the resulting ceramic structure retained its original hierarchical pore structure, which can create an unbroken pathway for thermal conductivity. The structures obtained exhibited 66% porosity, and after infiltration with paraffin, up to 96% of the pores were filled. Importantly, the composites achieved high thermal conductivity of 40 W/m·K; loading titanium nitride (TiN) nanoparticles on the surface of BSiC ceramics resulted in a high solar absorbance of 96.23%.
Traditional bilayered actuators are characterized by poor mechanical properties that influence performance reliability. For flexible electronics and soft robotics, materials with soft actuation are preferable [80]. Cao et al. [79] designed and produced a soft actuator inspired by natural bamboo with a hierarchical gradient structure using two-dimensional MXenes and one-dimensional cellulose nanofibers (Figure 18).
Two-dimensional titanium carbide MXene (Ti3C2TxMX) solution was produced by etching method from MAX phase, using lithium fluoride and hydrochloric acid. MXene film provides durability and mechanical strength, ensuring long-term performance. Gradient paraffin distribution accelerated response and increases thermal sensitivity, permitting precise control. The main advantages of the material are high flexibility and low weight, making it suitable for lightweight robotic applications, soft robotics, and bionic devices [80]. Deng et al. [82] utilized the mechanism of pine cone behavior under the influence of water to manufacture tunable photothermal actuators. The composite was prepared using commercial Kapton polyimide films, PW, and CNT sheets—Figure 19. The composite material was found to demonstrate ability to precisely regulate deformation under the influence of light (thanks to the programmed nanostructure); also, the high efficiency in converting light energy into mechanical energy was reported. Noteworthily, multiple work cycles do not cause any degradation effects.

5.6. Others

Organic PCMs possess numerous advantages, such as high latent heat capacity, the absence of supercooling, and relatively low cost. However, their application is challenging due to significant leakage during the solid–liquid phase transition [101]. Liang et al. [78] produced a 3D structure inspired by a sponge gourd (Figure 20). In the first step, epoxy resin (EP) was pressed into graphite foam, and then the structure was infused with melted paraffin wax (PW) inside a vacuum oven. In the final modification, the produced material was crushed and milled into PW/EG particles and dispersed with hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), and GO hydrosol was slowly added. On the surface of the PW/EG particles, a GO membrane was formed by self-assembly mechanism [102]. The GO modification ensured a smaller amount of PW leakage, and thermal conductivity was increased by 478%. Thermal stability, cycling reliability, and temperature regulation capabilities are promising for TES applications in temperature control of electronic devices.

6. Future Outlooks and Conclusions

Bio-inspired multifunctional phase change materials (PCMs) dedicated to energy storage and conversion have recently gained considerable attention in academia and industry. Solutions created by nature over millions of years can be utilized in the design and preparation of new efficient and structurally stable PCMs with enhanced thermal conductivity and heat storage ability. Inspiration provided by nature, e.g., thermal regulation functions operating in plants, could lead to significant advancements in the further development of sustainable PCM-based systems. Nature-inspired hierarchical PCMs with unique morphologies create high-performance solutions for next-generation TES systems with broad application perspectives in various sectors, such as energy and electronics.
However, there are some challenges in the design and manufacturing of new biomimetic phase change materials for thermal energy storage and conversion. PCM-based systems should fulfill the requirements of ‘classical’ PCMs, as well as through encapsulation and/or form-stabilization become an integral part of more complex structures, systems, and devices. The fundamental advantage of PCMs obtained directly from plants and animals is that they are environmentally friendly and sustainable, and their utilization in advanced systems is in line with Circular Economy principles. Contemporary materials and technologies profit from inspiration provided by biological structures that help in the innovative design of advanced materials and systems, especially those dealing with thermoregulation issues.
Living organisms often convert the thermal energy into other forms of energy, for instance, chemical energy, mechanical energy, or electrical energy, and this approach can be mimicked in the design of new material, including high-performance multi-scale hybrid materials combining synthetic and natural components. Along this line of interest, multifunctional fillers and nanofillers, such as graphene and MXenes, offer promising pathways to enhance properties of bio-based PCMs. Moreover, for PCMs that undergo solid–liquid phase transition, leakage above the melting point is a serious technological challenge. Taking an example from bio-inspired structures, e.g., cell-like micro-confinements and plant-like porous structures, one can improve stabilization procedures in various shape-stabilized PCMs.
Bio-inspiration has successfully contributed to various developments, such as a dynamic sinking and floating-based charging system for superfast and large-capacity STES, where safety enhancements under overheating conditions that are of crucial importance in, e.g., the aerospace sector, were reported. Other bio-inspired examples of PCMs are linked to polar bear fur-like textiles, thermal camouflage, and smart thermal management systems, as well as tunable photothermal actuators, to name a few. Importantly, to scale bio-inspired PCMs up, advanced additive manufacturing techniques can be applied to replicate complex bio-architectures and support commercial deployment.
Future developments will probably focus on further exploration of bio-based PCMs and their integration within complex systems and devices (e.g., sensors and actuators), as well as an in-depth look into bio-inspired mechanisms to utilize them in more efficient thermal management strategies and other temperature-responsive effects, such as thermal camouflage. Attention will most likely focus on the development of efficient and scalable manufacturing processes that allow for expanding the scope of application of bio-inspired phase change materials. Finally, durability tests and comprehensive life cycle assessment for bio-inspired PCMs should be provided to ensure safety and long-term reliability, and recycling protocols in the circular mode-of-action approach will also be required.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.P. (Kinga Pielichowska), M.S., and K.P. (Krzysztof Pielichowski); writing—original draft preparation, K.P. (Kinga Pielichowska), M.S., and K.P. (Krzysztof Pielichowski); writing—review and editing, K.P. (Kinga Pielichowska) and K.P. (Krzysztof Pielichowski); supervision, K.P. (Kinga Pielichowska) and K.P. (Krzysztof Pielichowski); project administration, K.P. (Kinga Pielichowska); funding acquisition, K.P. (Kinga Pielichowska). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors are grateful to the Polish National Science Centre for financial support un-der Contract No. 2023/51/B/ST8/02745. This work was supported by a subsidy from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education for the AGH University of Kraków (Project No. 16.16.160.557) and the Program “Excellence Initiative—Research University” for the AGH University of Krakow.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
AlN Aluminum nitride
AFPs Antifreeze proteins
BSiC Bamboo-derived silicon carbide
BNBoron nitride
CNT Carbon nanotubes
DEDelignification wood
C20 Eicosane
EMI Electromagnetic
EP Epoxy resin
EVA Poly(ethylene-vinyl acetate)
EG Expanded graphite
PW–MX Flexible actuator based on a paraffin wax and Ti3C2Tx MXene
GO Graphene oxide
CTAB Hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide
h-PCMs High-temperature phase change materials
LHTES Latent heat thermal energy storage
LA Lauric acid
LinA Linoleic acid
LPG Liquid-infused polydimethylsiloxane-graphite
OA Oleic acid
PA Palmitic acid
PW Paraffin wax
PCCs Phase change composites
PCMsPhase change materials
PV Photovoltaics
PVT Photovoltaic/thermal technology
PAA Poly(amic acid)
PEG Poly(ethylene glycol)
PD Polydopamine
PDMS Polydimethylsiloxane
PVA Poly(vinyl alcohol)
G-CGAs Pyramidal graphitized chitosan/graphene aerogels
PVA/W PVA/wood
rGO Reduced graphene oxide
SNTAs Silica nanotube aerogels
SPCCs Solar-responsive phase change composites
STES Solar–thermal energy storage
STEG Solar thermoelectric generator
SA Stearic acid
TA Tannic acid
TES Thermal energy storage
TPE Thermoplastic elastomer

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Figure 1. Bio-based and non-bio-based PCMs.
Figure 1. Bio-based and non-bio-based PCMs.
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Figure 2. Timeline of fatty acid source discovery, applications, and advances throughout history. Reprinted from [9].
Figure 2. Timeline of fatty acid source discovery, applications, and advances throughout history. Reprinted from [9].
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Figure 3. Antifreeze beetle making thermal management through AFPs and black surfaces: (A) The temperature-declining process of pure water (blue line) and water with 0.03% AFP (green line) under an ambient temperature of 15 °C. The insets show the thermal images of 2 kinds of solution at 400 and 1,000 s (left: water with AFP; right: pure water), respectively. (B) The DSC curves of pure water (blue line) and water with 0.03% AFP (green line). (C) Antifreeze beetles absorbing light through their black surface and storing thermal energy by AFPs with the irradiation of sunlight (left) and release of thermal energy at night or in cold weather (right). Reprinted from [48] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 3. Antifreeze beetle making thermal management through AFPs and black surfaces: (A) The temperature-declining process of pure water (blue line) and water with 0.03% AFP (green line) under an ambient temperature of 15 °C. The insets show the thermal images of 2 kinds of solution at 400 and 1,000 s (left: water with AFP; right: pure water), respectively. (B) The DSC curves of pure water (blue line) and water with 0.03% AFP (green line). (C) Antifreeze beetles absorbing light through their black surface and storing thermal energy by AFPs with the irradiation of sunlight (left) and release of thermal energy at night or in cold weather (right). Reprinted from [48] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 4. (a) Schematic showing solar thermal energy conversion and storage of the Afro-alpine plant species Lobelia teleki. (b) Temperature variation in the flower/central fluid of the plant and the ambient environment during a typical day. Reprinted from [49] with permission from Springer.
Figure 4. (a) Schematic showing solar thermal energy conversion and storage of the Afro-alpine plant species Lobelia teleki. (b) Temperature variation in the flower/central fluid of the plant and the ambient environment during a typical day. Reprinted from [49] with permission from Springer.
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Figure 5. Thermal regulation mechanisms in polar bears and the synthesis of SiC/PCMs/PNC. (a) Photograph of a polar bear with a schematic highlighting the hair, skin, and fat layer. (b) Schematic representation of SiC/PCMs/PNC, designed to emulate the thermal regulatory properties of the polar bear’s integumentary system. (c) The preparation process of SiC/PCMs/PNC involves the impregnation of porous carbon felt with phenolic resin, carbonization, reaction with molten silicon, removal of excess silicon, application of a Zn foil layer on the SiC surface, impregnation with PCMs, and the formation of Cu NPs via displacement reaction. Reprinted from [56] with permission from Wiley.
Figure 5. Thermal regulation mechanisms in polar bears and the synthesis of SiC/PCMs/PNC. (a) Photograph of a polar bear with a schematic highlighting the hair, skin, and fat layer. (b) Schematic representation of SiC/PCMs/PNC, designed to emulate the thermal regulatory properties of the polar bear’s integumentary system. (c) The preparation process of SiC/PCMs/PNC involves the impregnation of porous carbon felt with phenolic resin, carbonization, reaction with molten silicon, removal of excess silicon, application of a Zn foil layer on the SiC surface, impregnation with PCMs, and the formation of Cu NPs via displacement reaction. Reprinted from [56] with permission from Wiley.
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Figure 6. Smart liquid-infused polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)–graphite (LPG) foam for ultrafast charging and automatic overheating protection. (A) Schematic showing swim bladder, mimicking floating of LPG foam. (B) Time-sequential photographs showing floating behavior of fish-shaped LPG foam within melted PW after shedding concentrated solar illumination (1 W/cm2). (C) Photographs showing the generation of bubbles that drive the movement of LPG foam through shedding concentrated solar illumination. (D) Photographs and infrared images showing stopping charging and recycling LPG foam through shedding concentrated solar illumination. Reprinted from [83].
Figure 6. Smart liquid-infused polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)–graphite (LPG) foam for ultrafast charging and automatic overheating protection. (A) Schematic showing swim bladder, mimicking floating of LPG foam. (B) Time-sequential photographs showing floating behavior of fish-shaped LPG foam within melted PW after shedding concentrated solar illumination (1 W/cm2). (C) Photographs showing the generation of bubbles that drive the movement of LPG foam through shedding concentrated solar illumination. (D) Photographs and infrared images showing stopping charging and recycling LPG foam through shedding concentrated solar illumination. Reprinted from [83].
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Figure 7. Formable wood-based PCMs with muscle-inspired programmable stiffness. (a) Schematically illustrating the formable PCMs based on stiffness-switchable PVA/wood composites with muscle-inspired aligned wood fiber structures and solvent-induced supramolecular reconfiguration between aligned cellulose fibers and PVA molecules. (b) Large-scale production of PVA/wood PEG gel (PEG/PVA/W) produced from natural basswood. (c) On-demand shape-fixing of wood-based PCMs by manipulating its shape in the soft state and then fixing the shape by PEG-induced phase separation of the PVA/wood hydrogel (PVA/W); the wood gel can be formed into versatile shapes in diverse sequences via immersing in H2O and PEG to form strip-like, circle, triangle, and cat-head-like shapes. (d) The elastic modulus of the PVA/wood hydrogel before and after PEG immersion (PEG400 is used in this study unless otherwise indicated). The reinforced PEG/PVA/W exhibits an 11-fold increase in elastic modulus from 420 MPa to 4.8 GPa compared to the PVA/W. Reprinted from [84].
Figure 7. Formable wood-based PCMs with muscle-inspired programmable stiffness. (a) Schematically illustrating the formable PCMs based on stiffness-switchable PVA/wood composites with muscle-inspired aligned wood fiber structures and solvent-induced supramolecular reconfiguration between aligned cellulose fibers and PVA molecules. (b) Large-scale production of PVA/wood PEG gel (PEG/PVA/W) produced from natural basswood. (c) On-demand shape-fixing of wood-based PCMs by manipulating its shape in the soft state and then fixing the shape by PEG-induced phase separation of the PVA/wood hydrogel (PVA/W); the wood gel can be formed into versatile shapes in diverse sequences via immersing in H2O and PEG to form strip-like, circle, triangle, and cat-head-like shapes. (d) The elastic modulus of the PVA/wood hydrogel before and after PEG immersion (PEG400 is used in this study unless otherwise indicated). The reinforced PEG/PVA/W exhibits an 11-fold increase in elastic modulus from 420 MPa to 4.8 GPa compared to the PVA/W. Reprinted from [84].
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Figure 8. Collector-and-storage system. The black layer is represented by the knitted fabrics in the front view. Reprinted from [51] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 8. Collector-and-storage system. The black layer is represented by the knitted fabrics in the front view. Reprinted from [51] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 9. (a) Optical photo of towering conifer trees. (b) Diagram illustration of water transportation within conifer trees. (c) Longitudinal section and (d) cross-section of conifer plants with, respectively, vertically and radially aligned channels. (e) Schematic diagram for the preparation of a bio-inspired graphene oxide (GO)–BN scaffold. (f) Raman spectrum for BN, GO, and the obtained GO–BN precursor. (g) Cross-sectional morphology of a pure GO scaffold and (h) GO–BN scaffold prepared by the above method. (i) Optical photo of the GO–BN scaffold. Reprinted from [53] with permission from ACS.
Figure 9. (a) Optical photo of towering conifer trees. (b) Diagram illustration of water transportation within conifer trees. (c) Longitudinal section and (d) cross-section of conifer plants with, respectively, vertically and radially aligned channels. (e) Schematic diagram for the preparation of a bio-inspired graphene oxide (GO)–BN scaffold. (f) Raman spectrum for BN, GO, and the obtained GO–BN precursor. (g) Cross-sectional morphology of a pure GO scaffold and (h) GO–BN scaffold prepared by the above method. (i) Optical photo of the GO–BN scaffold. Reprinted from [53] with permission from ACS.
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Figure 10. (a) Infrared images of G-CGA4/PEG during solar–thermal conversion process under a light intensity of 200 mW cm−2. Temperature–time curves of bottom and top regions of (b) pyramidal G-CGA4/PEG and (c) square G-CGA4/PEG under a light intensity of 200 mW cm−2. (d) Waterlilies that bloom by day and close by night. (e) Schematic illustrating of solar responsiveness of SPCC. (f) Comparison of temperature–time curves of SPCC and G-CGA4/PEG during the cooling process after solar–thermal conversion under a light intensity of 200 mW cm−2. (g) Temperature distributions in PCCs with and without the solar-driven film at different times during the cooling process based on the finite element analysis. (h) Temperature–time curves of PCCs with and without the solar-driven film based on the finite element analysis. Reprinted from [85] with permission form Wiley.
Figure 10. (a) Infrared images of G-CGA4/PEG during solar–thermal conversion process under a light intensity of 200 mW cm−2. Temperature–time curves of bottom and top regions of (b) pyramidal G-CGA4/PEG and (c) square G-CGA4/PEG under a light intensity of 200 mW cm−2. (d) Waterlilies that bloom by day and close by night. (e) Schematic illustrating of solar responsiveness of SPCC. (f) Comparison of temperature–time curves of SPCC and G-CGA4/PEG during the cooling process after solar–thermal conversion under a light intensity of 200 mW cm−2. (g) Temperature distributions in PCCs with and without the solar-driven film at different times during the cooling process based on the finite element analysis. (h) Temperature–time curves of PCCs with and without the solar-driven film based on the finite element analysis. Reprinted from [85] with permission form Wiley.
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Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the structure of bionic PCM capsules mimicking mitochondria and conch. Reprinted from [61] with permission form Elsevier.
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the structure of bionic PCM capsules mimicking mitochondria and conch. Reprinted from [61] with permission form Elsevier.
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Figure 12. Schematic diagram of bionic PCM capsules mimicking the structure of chloroplast granum. Reprinted form [63] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 12. Schematic diagram of bionic PCM capsules mimicking the structure of chloroplast granum. Reprinted form [63] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 13. Bionic structure design: (a) natural structure of the lotus-root; (b) 3D illustration of the lotus-root inspired shell-and-tube LHTES unit; (c) simplified 2D model. Reprinted from [64] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 13. Bionic structure design: (a) natural structure of the lotus-root; (b) 3D illustration of the lotus-root inspired shell-and-tube LHTES unit; (c) simplified 2D model. Reprinted from [64] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 14. (a) Schematic diagram of okra functional biomimetic and structure section of h-CPCMs. (b) Fabrication process of okra functional biomimetic SiC ceramic skeleton. Reprinted form [66] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 14. (a) Schematic diagram of okra functional biomimetic and structure section of h-CPCMs. (b) Fabrication process of okra functional biomimetic SiC ceramic skeleton. Reprinted form [66] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 15. (a) Schematic illustration and (b) infrared images showing the thermoregulating function of the polyimide textile infiltrated with phase change material during a heating and cooling cycle (between 25 and 100 °C). The temperatures in each image correspond to the average surface temperature of the textile and the hot stage, respectively. (c) Comparison between the temperature variation in the textile (red solid line) and stage (black dotted line) showing obvious delay and narrower temperature fluctuation for the polyimide textile infiltrated with phase change material during the heating and cooling cycle. Reprinted form [77] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 15. (a) Schematic illustration and (b) infrared images showing the thermoregulating function of the polyimide textile infiltrated with phase change material during a heating and cooling cycle (between 25 and 100 °C). The temperatures in each image correspond to the average surface temperature of the textile and the hot stage, respectively. (c) Comparison between the temperature variation in the textile (red solid line) and stage (black dotted line) showing obvious delay and narrower temperature fluctuation for the polyimide textile infiltrated with phase change material during the heating and cooling cycle. Reprinted form [77] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 16. Thermal images displayed on an infrared thermal camera for exposure to sunlight (a,c) and after turning off the sunlight (b,d). The sunlight was controlled by a solar simulator. Scale bar: 2 cm. Reprinted from [95].
Figure 16. Thermal images displayed on an infrared thermal camera for exposure to sunlight (a,c) and after turning off the sunlight (b,d). The sunlight was controlled by a solar simulator. Scale bar: 2 cm. Reprinted from [95].
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Figure 17. (a) Camera and scheme image, (b) low- and (c) high-magnified SEM images of carbon template. (d) Camera and scheme image, (e) low- and (f) high-magnified SEM images of porous BSiC ceramics. Reprinted from [100] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 17. (a) Camera and scheme image, (b) low- and (c) high-magnified SEM images of carbon template. (d) Camera and scheme image, (e) low- and (f) high-magnified SEM images of porous BSiC ceramics. Reprinted from [100] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 18. Nature-like thermal actuators based on PCMs. (a) Schematic diagram for preparing the PW-MX phase change film. (b) Photograph and SEM images of PW-MX phase change film. (c) Crawling optical images of the inchworm robot based on PW-MX phase change film. Reproduced from [80] with permission from ACS.
Figure 18. Nature-like thermal actuators based on PCMs. (a) Schematic diagram for preparing the PW-MX phase change film. (b) Photograph and SEM images of PW-MX phase change film. (c) Crawling optical images of the inchworm robot based on PW-MX phase change film. Reproduced from [80] with permission from ACS.
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Figure 19. (a) Reversible opening and closing movements of a pine cone and schematic of a cross-sectional active region. (b) Hygroscopic twisting in a Bauhinia variegata pod and illustration of the active region, indicating the orientation of cellulose fibrils. (c) Schematic illustration of the apheliotropic and phototropic bending of the composite strips with different aligned directions of CNTs. Reprinted from [82] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 19. (a) Reversible opening and closing movements of a pine cone and schematic of a cross-sectional active region. (b) Hygroscopic twisting in a Bauhinia variegata pod and illustration of the active region, indicating the orientation of cellulose fibrils. (c) Schematic illustration of the apheliotropic and phototropic bending of the composite strips with different aligned directions of CNTs. Reprinted from [82] with permission from Elsevier.
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Figure 20. (a) Schematic diagram of PW/EG@GO design concept. (b) Preparation Scheme for PW/EG@GO. Reprinted from [78] with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 20. (a) Schematic diagram of PW/EG@GO design concept. (b) Preparation Scheme for PW/EG@GO. Reprinted from [78] with permission from Elsevier.
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Table 1. The fatty acids content in the most popular species of oil plants.
Table 1. The fatty acids content in the most popular species of oil plants.
PlantFatty AcidSource
16:018:018:118:2α-18:3Other
Thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana) seeds9.6(10); 8.9(11); 8.7(12)2.7(10); 2.8(11); 2.8(12)10.8(10); 12.2(11); 15.6(12)32.8(10); 32.7(11); 29.2(12)21.2(10); 21.1(11); 21.91(12)15.2(10); 35.8(11); 18.4(12)[10,11,12]
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)8.85 *; 8.70 **3.39 *; 2.59 **5.65 *; 7.7 **0.94 *; 1.34 **−75.27 *; 78.67 **[13]
Cocoa butter (Theobroma cacao)24.5–33.7(14); 27.19(15.1); 27.43(15.2); 28.30(15.3)33.7–40.2(14); 36.04(15.1); 36.20(15.2); 35.71(15.3)26.3–35(14); 33.64(15.1); 33.87(15.2); 33.47(15.3)1.7–3(14); 3.13(15.1); 2.49(15.2); 2.52(15.3)0–1(14); -2.6–11.6(14); -[14,15]
Palm (Elaeis guineensis)41.8 ± 0.35(16); 40.5(17)3.5 ± 0.08(16); 5.2(17)37.4 ± 0.40(16); 43.5(17)14.1 ± 0.06(16); 9.3(17)−(16); 0.2(17)3.3 ± 0.04(16); 1(17)[16,17]
Olive (Olea europaea)12.09(18); 17.87 ± 0.05(19.1); 8.97 ± 0.03(19.2); 16.42 ± 0.07(19.3)3.01(18); 1.78 ± 0.07(19.1); 3.67 ± 0.02(19.2); 1.65 ± 0.02(19.3)72.77(18); 61.82 ± 0.05(19.1); 70.32 ± 0.15(19.2); 64.94 ± 0.14(19.3)72.77(18); 15.17 ± 0.05(19.1); 17.04 ± 0.12(19.2); 14.36 ± 0.06(19.3)−(18); 0.90 ± 0.00(19.1); –(19.2); 0.71 ± 0.01(19.3)2.66(18); 2.25 ± 0.03(19.1); –(19.2); 1.93 ± 0.01(19.3)[18,19]
Canola (Brassica napus)5.21 ± 0.062.34 ± 0.0766.79 ± 0.0916.58 ± 126.48 ± 0.022.60 ± 0.16[20]
Canola (Brassica napus) oil<7<750–60−6–14−[21]
Peanut (Arachis hypogea)8.0–13.5(18); 15.00 ± 0.25(22)2.0–5.0(18); −(22)35.0–70.0(18); 55.47 ± 1.34(22)15.0–48.0(18); 24.01 ± 0.33(22)−(18); 1.31 ± 0.02(22)4.9–11.3(18); 4.21 ± 0.33(22)[18,22]
Sesame (Sesamum spp.)12.27(23.1); 9.06(23.2); 10.94(23.3)−47.44(23.1); 46.86(23.2); 43.95(23.3)39.10(23.1); 42.25(23.2); 43.41(23.3)0.61(23.1); 0.58(23.2); 0.50(23.3)0.58(23.1); 1.25(23.2); 1.20(23.3)[23]
Corn (Zea mays)10.0–15.0(18); 10.90(24)1.5–3.0(18); 1.49(24)23.0–41.0(18); 28.68(24)41.0–63.0(18); 57.75(24) −(18); 1.19(24)1–3.5(18); −(24)[18,24]
Soybean (Glycine max)3.28 ± 0.12(25.1); 16.95 ± 0.09(25.2)2.34 ± 0.23(25.1); 5.15 ± 0.32(25.2)20.47 ± 0.51(25.1); 16.02 ± 0.21(25.2)16.02 ± 0.21(25.1); 47.57 ± 0.15(25.2)47.57 ± 0.15(25.1); 12.11 ± 0.17(25.2)0.71 ± 0.4(25.1); 2.21 ± 0.89(25.2)[25]
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)5.0–8.0(18); 5.0–7.6(26)2.5–7.0(18); 2.7–6.5(26)15.0–40.0(18); 14.0–39.4(26)40.0–74.0(18); 48.3–74.0(26)−(18); 0–0.3(26)0.5–2.9(18); −(26)[18,26]
Cottonseed (Gossypium spp.)23.923.918.0752.50.201.42[27]
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)6–8(28); 3–5(29.1); 5–6(29.2)2–3(28); 1–2(29.1); 1–2(29.2)16–20(28); 5–7(29.1); 75–80(29.2)71–75(28); 87–89(29.1); 14–18(29.2)−−[28,29]
Flax (Linum usitatissimum)6.584.4318.5117.2553.21−[30]
Chia (Salvia hispanica)8.55 ± 0.023.38 ± 0.0110.24 ± 0.0118.69 ± 0.0354.08 ± 0.015.88 ± 0.03[31]
Grape seed (Vitis vinifera)6.0–8.0(18); 9.56 ± 0.01(32.1); 7.93 ± 0.01(32.2)3.0–6.0(18); 3.81 ± 0.01(32.1); 5.34 ± 0.02(32.2)3.0–6.0(18); 17.98 ± 0.00(32.1); 13.13 ± 0.01(32.2)60.0–76.0(18); 66.69 ± 0.03(32.1); 72.28 ± 0.01(32.2)−(18); −(32.1); −(32.2)0–1.7(18); 1.94 ± 0.05(32.1); 1.29 ± 0.04(32.2)[18,32]
Rice (Oryza)17.0–22.01.0–2.530.0–45.035.0–50.0−1.5-4.2[18]
Hound’s tongue (Cynoglossum officinale)6.81.630.328.13.829.4[33]
Viper’s bugloss (Echium vulgare)8.13.415.022.237.813,5[33]
European stickseed (Lappula squarrosa)5.41.914.912.636.229[33]
Avocado seed (Persea americana)13.87 ± 0.24(34.1); 15.73 ± 0.04(34.2)0.93 ± 0.09(34.1); 1.26 ± 0.05(34.2)17.94 ± 0.12(34.1); 1.26 ± 0.05(34.2)37.26 ± 0.13(34.1); 28.54 ± 0.10(34.2)37.26 ± 0.13(34.1); 7.64 ± 0.05(34.2)25.06 ± 1.29(34.1); 26.74 ± 1.31(34.2)[34]
Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) leave11.19 ± 0.422.77 ± 0.0316.62 ± 0.2237.68 ± 0.5715.06 ± 0.1113.72 ± 2.01[35]
Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) seed6.46 ± 0.074.63 ± 0.0017.72 ± 0.1165.21 ± 0.163.34 ± 0.012.22 ± 0.71[35]
Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) stem10.75 ± 0.052.55 ± 0.0017.32 ± 0.0753.21 ± 0.4611.72 ± 0.143.93 ± 0.69[35]
Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) flower13.93 ± 0.623.25 ± 0.0322.29 ± 0.1737.85 ± 0.5911.86 ± 0.0910.26 ± 2.89[35]
Beef tallow (sebum)—post frying28.22 ± 0.2128.22 ± 0.2130.78 ± 0.281.24 ± 0.010.07 ± 0.0012.63 ± 0.33[36]
Beeswax (Cera alba)++−−−+[37]
Honey bee (Apis mellifera)+−+−++[37]
Royal jelly (Apis mellifera secretion)+−++++[37]
* industrial means; ** artisanal means (15.1)—cocoa batch from Dominican Republic; (15.2)—cocoa batch from Madagascar; (15.3)—cocoa batch from Ecuador; (19.1)—oil from Mesocarp; (19.2) oil from Seed; (19.3) oil from whole fruit; (23.1)—sesame germplasm genotype Phule Til 1; (23.2) sesame germplasm genotype Thilothama; (23.3)—sesame germplasm genotype Guj Til 2; (25.1)—soybean; (25.2)—soybean oil; (29.1)—Genotype OLOLliliStSt of safflower; (29.2)—Genotype ololLiLiStSt of safflower; (32.1)—GRAPE SEED OILS in Kalecik Karasi; (32.2)—GRAPE SEED OILS in Cabernet; +—fatty acid present in the product; −—fatty acid absent; (34.1)—HA variety; (34.2)—CH variety.
Table 2. Bio-inspired PCM-based systems.
Table 2. Bio-inspired PCM-based systems.
Bio-InspirationApplicationPCMMaterialHeat of Melting
[J/g]		Tm
[°C]		Thermal Conduct.
[W/m·K]		Ref.
Antifreeze beetlesThermal management
of building materials		ParaffinMXene/bacterial cellulose aerogels modified with methyltrimethoxysilane
coating		89.0220–260.0241[52]
Antifreeze beetlesDetachable building layersParaffinSurface-modified MXene/bacterial-
cellulose aerogel infiltrated with PCM		67.14.393-[48]
Conifer treesSolar energy harvestingPEGgraphene oxide/boron nitride scaffold147.5552.94[53]
Texas lizardElectromagnetic (EMI) shielding-Mg2+-Ti3C2Tx MXene aerogels---[54]
Black scale textures of bitis rhinocerosSolar steam-generation devices-2D-material
nanocoatings, including Ti3C2Tx MXene, reduced graphene oxide (rGO),
and molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)		---[55]
Polar bearHigh-temperature solar thermal storage technologies and a wide
range of related applications.		DipentaerythritolSiC/PCMs/
plasmonic
nanoparticle coating composite		195.122414[56]
Plant leavesPhotovoltaic/thermal technology (PVT) system application for both temperature regulation and heat retentionParafin-A28 and A36PCM/EG265; 25028; 363[57]
Muscle fascicleBuilding load-bearing, photothermal conversion devices, and energy-savingpolyurethane with TA and FeCl3thermowood-2K, thermowood-4K, and thermowood-6K 95.4590.353[58]
CalabashUpgrade the capability of
thermal energy storage (TES)		n-octadecane3D-printed n-octadecane capsulated into translucent photosensitive resin with thickness of 2 mm243.5 (PCM)28.2 (PCM)0.12 (resin); 0.1505 (PCM)[59]
Eucalyptus woodEnergy-saving materials in buildingsTetradecanol-eicosanol (0.85, 0.15)DE-SrAl2O4:Eu2+, Dy3+ (PLO-8C)155.529.9-[60]
Mitochondria and conchGreen energyParaffin waxDifferent fin structures from cupper with phase change capsules163.39 (bionic-conch); 92.95 (bionic-mitochondrial)77.34 (bionic-conch); 79.30 (bionic-mitochondrial)0.25 (PCM)[61]
MusselsCement-based building materialsn-octadecaneCeno-PCM, PD-Ceno-PCM, and cement mortar
integrated with them; ceno-unbroken cenosphere, PD-polydopamine coating,		205.04 (PCM); 107.52 (Ceno-PCM); 100.89 (PD-Ceno-PCM);27.42 (PCM); 29.87 (Ceno-PCM); 30.5 (PD-Ceno-PCM);-[62]
Chloroplast-granumPacked-bed thermal energy storage systemRT64 paraffinPhase change capsules240.21 (PCM)63.26 (PCM)0.2 (PCM in 164 °C)[63]
Lotus-rootIndustrial applicationsn-octadecaneShell-and-tube LHTES unit (single-tube
type), a multi-tube type, and an inverted bionic-lotus root type
(inverse bionic lotus root)		241.3 (PCM)28 (PCM)0.35 (solid); 0.149 (liquid)[64]
Internal transportation of water (or sap) from roots to leaves through channels in a treeSolar energy storage,
thermal regulating textiles, and thermal therapy devices		LALA in polystyrene hollow fibers infiltrated in 50 and 60 °C180.2 (PCM); 147.1 (50 °C); 81.6 (60 °C)45.6 (the 1st cycle) to 46.0 (the 100th
cycle) for the 50 °C; 46.2 (the
1st cycle) to 45.6 for the 60 °C		-[65]
Okra seed storage processHigh temperature thermal energy storageNaCl, Na2CO3 -binary molten saltsh-CPCMs (combination of the h-PCMs and porous SiC ceramic skeletons—was obtained using okra as a template)422 J/g (including latent and sensible heat) under 500–700 °C)63817 to 31
(determined by the porosity of the skeleton)		[66]
Palmate leafStorage device; cooling systemLAHeat transfer fluid tubes and fins infiltrated by PCM178 (PCM)42 (PCM)0.15 (PCM)[67]
Maple leafLatent heat exchangerRT58, MA, SAHeat transfer fluid tubes and fins infiltrated by PCM---[68]
Insects ocular structuresOutdoor
equipment, high-rise buildings, and aerospace vessels.		-PDMS/SiO2 film on the graphene surface---[69]
BeeswaxThermal management of electronic devices,
energy-saving buildings, smart textiles, thermal energy harvesting
systems, self-cleaning surfaces		BeeswaxDiatom frustule/beeswax112.5759.20-[70]
Marine microorganism-based silica productionBuilding materialsA biobased PCM—PureTemp 29Cenosphere-based PCM microcapsules119.27 30.020.25/0.15[71]
Spider webShell and tube phase change heat accumulatorParaffinSimulation of paraffin inside
shell and tube phase change heat accumulator with novel biomimetic spider web fins		---[72]
Animal eggEnergy storagen-octadecaneBionic-oval, sphere, and ellipse-geometric parameters of PCM capsules; PCM capsule is made of translucent photosensitive resin243.5 (PCM)28.2 (PCM)0.1505 (PCM); 0.4 (resin)[73]
Afro-alpine plant species Lobelia telekiiAnti-icing/de-icing
applications		TetradecaneEG/paraffin/
PDMS		1065.32-[49]
Polar bear hairMaterial for thermal insulation and personal thermal management-Hybrid textile from silkworm cocoons modified by chitosan--21.86 ± 1.98[74]
Polar bear hairThermoregulating textiles applicable to thermal insulation both in air and underwater-Hybrid textile from silkworm cocoons modified by chitosan; hydrophobic treatment of textiles was carried out by coating a layer of fluorinated SiO2 nanoparticles onto the surface--22 (the foam)[75]
Polar bear hairThermal insulation, daylighting and UV protection applied in outer space or at high latitudes-Silica nanotube aerogels --30.25 to 32.67 (in 26 °C)[76]
Polar bear hairThermoregulating textiles (or protective clothing)-Polyimide aerogel textile--0.0364 (25 °C) to 0.1607 (300 °C)—textile; 0.055 (25 °C) to 0.1055 (300 °C)—foam[77]
Sponge gourdThermal energy storage especially in the temperature control of electronic devicesParaffin waxEG impregnated with PW as the core and graphene oxide as the shell157.839.22.36[78]
BambooSmart actuators-Ti3C2Tx MXene-Based---[79]
EarthwormBionic robotParaffin waxFlexible actuator based on a paraffin wax and
Ti3C2Tx MXene film composite		-622.84[80]
Dynamic thermoregulation behavior of butterfly wingsWearable thermotherapy and other flexible solar–thermal
applications		Paraffin with ceresin; SAReduced graphene oxide-coated polyurethane sponge223.468.10.47[81]
Pine
cone		Photomechanical
actuation		PWPW was melted and then spin-coated onto a commercial
Kapton film		---[82]
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Pielichowska, K.; Szatkowska, M.; Pielichowski, K. Thermal Energy Storage in Bio-Inspired PCM-Based Systems. Energies 2025, 18, 3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133548

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Pielichowska K, Szatkowska M, Pielichowski K. Thermal Energy Storage in Bio-Inspired PCM-Based Systems. Energies. 2025; 18(13):3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133548

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Pielichowska, Kinga, Martyna Szatkowska, and Krzysztof Pielichowski. 2025. "Thermal Energy Storage in Bio-Inspired PCM-Based Systems" Energies 18, no. 13: 3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133548

APA Style

Pielichowska, K., Szatkowska, M., & Pielichowski, K. (2025). Thermal Energy Storage in Bio-Inspired PCM-Based Systems. Energies, 18(13), 3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133548

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