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Article

Exploration of the Ignition Delay Time of RP-3 Fuel Using the Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm in a Machine Learning Framework

1
School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shenyang Aerospace University, Shenyang 110136, China
2
Liaoning Key Laboratory of Advanced Test Technology for Aerospace Propulsion System, School of Aero-engine, Shenyang Aerospace University, Shenyang 110136, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(12), 3037; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123037 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 3 May 2025 / Revised: 4 June 2025 / Accepted: 6 June 2025 / Published: 8 June 2025

Abstract

Ignition delay time (IDT) is a critical parameter for evaluating the autoignition characteristics of aviation fuels. However, its accurate prediction remains challenging due to the complex coupling of temperature, pressure, and compositional factors, resulting in a high-dimensional and nonlinear problem. To address this challenge for the complex aviation kerosene RP-3, this study proposes a multi-stage hybrid optimization framework based on a five-input, one-output BP neural network. The framework—referred to as CGD-ABC-BP—integrates randomized initialization, conjugate gradient descent (CGD), the artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm, and L2 regularization to enhance convergence stability and model robustness. The dataset includes 700 experimental and simulated samples, covering a wide range of thermodynamic conditions: 624–1700 K, 0.5–20 bar, and equivalence ratios φ = 0.5 − 2.0. To improve training efficiency, the temperature feature was linearized using a 1000/T transformation. Based on 30 independent resampling trials, the CGD-ABC-BP model with a three-hidden-layer structure of [21 17 19] achieved strong performance on internal test data: R2 = 0.994 ± 0.001, MAE = 0.04 ± 0.015, MAPE = 1.4 ± 0.05%, and RMSE = 0.07 ± 0.01. These results consistently outperformed the baseline model that lacked ABC optimization. On an entirely independent external test set comprising 70 low-pressure shock tube samples, the model still exhibited strong generalization capability, achieving R2 = 0.976 and MAPE = 2.18%, thereby confirming its robustness across datasets with different sources. Furthermore, permutation importance and local gradient sensitivity analysis reveal that the model can reliably identify and rank key controlling factors—such as temperature, diluent fraction, and oxidizer mole fraction—across low-temperature, NTC, and high-temperature regimes. The observed trends align well with established findings in the chemical kinetics literature. In conclusion, the proposed CGD-ABC-BP framework offers a highly accurate and interpretable data-driven approach for modeling IDT in complex aviation fuels, and it shows promising potential for practical engineering deployment.
Keywords: ignition delay time; RP-3 aviation kerosene; BP neural network; gradient descent algorithm; artificial bee colony algorithm; sensitivity analysis; importance assessment ignition delay time; RP-3 aviation kerosene; BP neural network; gradient descent algorithm; artificial bee colony algorithm; sensitivity analysis; importance assessment

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MDPI and ACS Style

Liu, W.; Liu, Z.; Ma, H. Exploration of the Ignition Delay Time of RP-3 Fuel Using the Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm in a Machine Learning Framework. Energies 2025, 18, 3037. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123037

AMA Style

Liu W, Liu Z, Ma H. Exploration of the Ignition Delay Time of RP-3 Fuel Using the Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm in a Machine Learning Framework. Energies. 2025; 18(12):3037. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123037

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Wenbo, Zhirui Liu, and Hongan Ma. 2025. "Exploration of the Ignition Delay Time of RP-3 Fuel Using the Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm in a Machine Learning Framework" Energies 18, no. 12: 3037. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123037

APA Style

Liu, W., Liu, Z., & Ma, H. (2025). Exploration of the Ignition Delay Time of RP-3 Fuel Using the Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm in a Machine Learning Framework. Energies, 18(12), 3037. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123037

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