Renewable Energy Potential and CO2 Performance of Main Biomasses Used in Brazil
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biomass Potential in Brazil
3. Biomass Composition and Properties
Ash Composition and Ash Fusibility Trends
4. Conversion Technologies Routes
5. Carbon Potential
- (I)
- Biomass to bioethanol to replace gasoline;
- (II)
- Anaerobic digestion for biogas production;
- (III)
- Direct combustion for power generation;
- (IV)
- Gasification to replace natural gas;
- (V)
- Fast pyrolysis for bio-oil production as substitutes for fuel oil.
6. Summary, Conclusions and Outline
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Agro-Industrial Biomass | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raw Material | Planted Areas (Million ha) | Production 2021/2022 Harvest (Million Tons) | Type of Residue | RPR [%] a [19,20,21] | Amount of Residue (Million Tons) | LHV [MJ/kg] | EP (PJ/yr) b | Competitive Uses |
Soybean | 40.95 [23] | 124.05 [23] | Stalk and straw | 20 | 248.10 | 17.15 | 4254.92 |
|
Husk | 8 | 9.90 | 14.14 | 140.37 | ||||
Rice | 1.62 [23] | 10.80 [23] | Straw | 154 | 16.63 | 17.14 | 285.07 |
|
Husk | 26 | 2.81 | 16.43 | 46.12 | ||||
Wheat | 2.92 [23] | 9.03 [23] | Straw | 155 | 14.00 | 15.10 | 211.35 |
|
Corn | 21.66 [23] | 115.66 [23] | Leaves | 21 | 24.29 | 22.43 | 544.79 |
|
Corn cob | 15 | 17.35 | 19.32 | 355.18 | ||||
Coffee | 1.84 [28] | 3.21 [28] | Husk | 33 | 1.06 | 18.20 | 19.25 |
|
Coconut | 0.19 [29] | 2.45 [29] | Husk | 70 | 1.71 | 19.91 | 34.05 |
|
Shell | 10 | 0.24 | 15.94 | 3.83 | ||||
Sugarcane | 8.21 [30] | 596.01 [30] | Straw | 34 | 202.64 | 18.07 | 3661.77 |
|
Bagasse | 30 | 178.80 | 18.40 | 3289.98 | ||||
Banana | 0.47 [31] | 7.11 [31] | Leaves | 48 | 3.41 | 16.13 | 55.05 |
|
Stem | 300 | 21.33 | 15.73 | 335.52 | ||||
Orange | 16.47 [31] | 0.63 [31] | Bagasse | 50 | 0.32 | 15.82 | 4.98 |
|
Forestry Biomass | ||||||||
Planted Areas in 2019 (Million ha) [12] | Productivity (m3/ha yr) [12] | Type of Residue | RPR [%] a [34,35] | Amount of Residue (Million tons) c | LHV [MJ/kg] | EP (PJ/yr) | Competitive Uses | |
Eucalyptus d | 6.97 | 35.30 | Bark | 0.08 | 0.56 | 18.26 | 10.23 |
|
Branches | 0.03 | 0.21 | 18.05 | 3.79 | ||||
Leaves | 0.02 | 0.14 | 16.05 | 2.25 | ||||
Tips e | 0.13 | 0.91 | - | - | ||||
Pinus f | 1.64 | 31.30 | Bark | 0.10 | 0.69 | 16.81 | 11.60 |
|
Branches | 0.30 | 2.09 | 18.08 | 37.79 | ||||
Leaves | 0.05 | 0.35 | 17.81 | 6.23 |
Resource | Residue | Proximate Analysis [wt%] | Ultimate Analysis [wt%] | LHVdaf | HHVdaf | Ref | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MC | VM | FC | AC | C | H | O | N | S | MJ/kg | MJ/kg | |||
Agro-Industrial Biomass | |||||||||||||
Soybean | Straw | 5.20 | 81.30 | 8.90 | 4.60 | 41.98 | 5.05 | 47.46 | 0.46 | 0.45 | - | 16.40 | [57] |
Straw | 7.98 | 70.03 | 13.78 | 8.21 | 41.34 | 4.23 | 45.26 | 0.85 | 0.11 | - | - | [58] | |
Straw | - | 85.50 | 10.60 | 3.90 | 44.30 | 5.80 | 45.20 | 0.70 | 0.10 | - | 16.10 | [59] | |
Stalk | - | - | - | 8.87 | 41.05 | 5.52 | 41.39 | 2.90 | 0.28 | - | 16.39 | [60] | |
Straw | 7.60–10.90 | - | - | 2.6–5.9 | - | - | - | - | - | 15.92 | - | [61] | |
Straw | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 15.92 | - | [62] | |
Stalk | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 16.99 | - | [63] | |
Husk (gordana) | 13.93 | 68.18 | 8.15 | 5.81 | 49.54 | 4.72 | 52.73 | 2.51 | 0.18 | 15.71 | 16.17 | [64] | |
Husk (sivka) | 14.85 | 66.91 | 9.41 | 4.74 | 48.41 | 4.28 | 54.77 | 2.21 | 0.11 | 16.18 | 17.12 | [64] | |
Husk (slavonka) | 16.25 | 66.24 | 10.08 | 4.00 | 49.33 | 5.14 | 53.42 | 2.11 | 0.14 | 15.34 | 16.46 | [64] | |
Husk | 6.80 | 82.20 | 6.80 | 94.00 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [65] | |
Husk | - | 70.60 | 24.50 | 4.90 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [66] | |
Rice | Straw | 5.46 | 88.78 | 1.43 | 9.82 | 46.24 | 6.21 | 46.23 | 1.32 | - | - | 16.16 | [67] |
Straw | 4.91 | 71.82 | 8.07 | 4.91 | 46.11 | 6.83 | 46.03 | 1.03 | - | - | 16.14 | [68] | |
Straw | 4.35 | 74.86 | 11.56 | 9.23 | 42.57 | 5.84 | 49.33 | 2.13 | 0.13 | - | - | [69] | |
Straw | 8.08 | 69.99 | 13.40 | 8.79 | 39.61 | 5.83 | 43.80 | 1.21 | - | 14.21 | - | [70] | |
Straw | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 15.54 | - | [63] | |
Husk | 7.73 | 64.20 | 15.50 | 12.57 | 38.62 | 5.67 | 41.38 | 0.48 | - | 15.39 | - | [70] | |
Husk | - | 68.70 | 16.30 | 15.00 | 40.80 | 5.30 | 38.20 | 0.60 | 0.10 | - | 15.30 | [59] | |
Husk | - | 70.70 | 15.40 | 13.90 | 40.10 | - | 39.70 | - | - | - | 16.79 | [71] | |
Husk | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 15.54 | - | [63] | |
Husk | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 12.80 | - | [72] | |
Wheat | Straw | 7.10 | 76.70 | 7.10 | 9.20 | 45.50 | 5.70 | 47.90 | 1.00 | - | - | 16.50 | [73] |
Straw | 6.46 | 77.03 | 19.47 | 3.50 | 44.00 | 5.76 | 48.92 | 0.94 | 0.38 | - | 17.52 | [74] | |
Straw | 10.11 | 68.92 | 12.74 | 8.23 | 38.96 | 5.27 | 55.27 | 0.50 | - | - | 13.37 | [75] | |
Straw | 12.81 | 83.08 | 10.29 | 6.63 | 38.34 | 5.47 | 55.59 | 0.60 | 0.37 | - | 16.68 | [76] | |
Stalk | 10–20 | - | - | 2.6–9.6 | - | - | - | - | - | 17.20 | - | [61] | |
Stalk | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 17.15 | - | [63] | |
Husk | 3.37 | 72.78 | 13.70 | 12.14 | 38.70 | 5.50 | 54.73 | 0.66 | 0.41 | - | 13.64 | [77] | |
Husk | 13.31 | 69.53 | 13.20 | 3.96 | 52.84 | 6.10 | 15.12 | 2.55 | - | 22.91 | [78] | ||
Husk | 8.13 | 80.54 | 15.73 | 3.43 | 45.97 | 6.81 | 52.62 | 1.41 | 0.11 | 17.11 | 18.59 | [79] | |
Husk | 7.00 | 71.40 | 19.30 | 2.30 | 42.00 | 6.30 | 47.40 | 1.90 | 0.10 | 17.80 | [80] | ||
Corn | Straw | 26.00 | 67.60 | 17.80 | 14.60 | 41.90 | 5.76 | 35.75 | - | - | - | 16.30 | [81] |
Straw | 6.18 | 71.21 | 16.12 | 6.49 | 45.84 | 5.11 | 34.89 | 1.28 | 0.21 | - | 16.80 | [82] | |
Stalk | - | 78.12 | 17.99 | 3.89 | 44.36 | 5.73 | 45.35 | 0.67 | - | - | - | [83] | |
Stalk | - | 75.38 | 17.95 | 6.67 | 42.53 | 6.17 | 43.59 | 0.93 | 0.11 | 16.59 | [84] | ||
Stalk | 15–45 | - | - | 3.50–9.00 | - | - | - | - | - | 8–17. | - | [61] | |
Stalk | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 13.70 | - | [62] | |
Cob | 7.83 | 69.24 | 17.29 | 5.64 | 48.51 | 5.90 | 39.14 | 0.29 | 0.52 | 14.94 | 17.05 | [85] | |
Cob | 9.60 | 71.60 | 17.20 | 1.60 | 44.40 | 6.50 | 48.80 | 0.30 | 0.00 | - | 16.80 | [86] | |
Cob | 11.00 | 70.00 | 9.20 | 9.80 | 36.40 | 6.20 | 47.10 | 0.50 | 0.05 | - | 15.40 | [87] | |
Cob | - | 83.10 | 13.78 | 3.12 | 43.40 | 6.55 | 48.88 | 0.65 | 0.49 | - | - | [88] | |
Coffee | Husk | 9.95 | 84.20 | 14.30 | 1.50 | 48.98 | 5.32 | 44.92 | 0.78 | 0.29 | - | 18.04 | [44] |
Husk | 9.06 | 77.09 | 19.36 | 3.55 | 46.41 | 6.33 | 44.51 | 2.66 | 0.09 | - | 18.50 | [89] | |
Husk | 2.70 | 77.70 | 17.90 | 1.70 | 48.50 | 5.90 | 40.60 | 2.80 | 0.60 | - | 18.30 | [90] | |
Husk | 8.33 | 78.44 | 18.93 | 5.63 | 44.41 | 5.78 | 49.80 | - | - | - | 18.26 | [91] | |
Banana | Leaves | 8.40 | 73.05 | 11.29 | 7.26 | 43.28 | 6.68 | 48.31 | 1.28 | 0.30 | - | 17.80 | [92] |
Leaves | - | 77.79 | 11.31 | 10.90 | 44.85 | 6.23 | 48.17 | 0.58 | 0.17 | 14.69 | 15.90 | [93] | |
Leaves | - | 72.60 | 18.00 | 9.10 | 41.40 | 5.40 | 41.40 | 2.50 | 0.29 | 16.10 | 16.30 | [94] | |
Leaves | - | 70.14 | 14.51 | 15.35 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [95] | |
Stem | 10.20 | 80.60 | 6.90 | 12.50 | 33.60 | 7.30 | 36.90 | 22.1 | 0.20 | 10.8 | 12.40 | [96] | |
Stem | 12.56 | 80.27 | 9.96 | 8.00 | 39.00 | 5.44 | 54.84 | 0.82 | - | - | 16.13 | [97] | |
Stem | - | - | - | - | 38.44 | 5.03 | 43.10 | 1.24 | 0.09 | - | - | [98] | |
Stem | - | 73.98 | 17.94 | 8.08 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 14.09 | [99] | |
Orange | Bagasse | 7.62 | 76.45 | 23.55 | 7.62 | 44.93 | 7.10 | 46.31 | 1.42 | 0.14 | 14.31 | 15.86 | [100] |
Bagasse | 9.23 | 73.20 | 20.60 | 6.20 | 46.40 | 5.54 | 40.15 | 1.17 | 0.01 | 17.03 | 18.16 | [101] | |
Bagasse | 6.15 | 70.33 | 20.86 | 2.66 | 43.57 | 4.40 | 51.78 | 0.17 | 0.09 | - | 17.26 | [102] | |
Bagasse | 1.50 | 74.10 | 23.60 | 2.30 | 42.70 | 6.40 | 47.60 | 1.00 | - | - | 19.40 | [103] | |
Bagasse | 2.71 | 81.84 | 11.44 | 6.71 | 44.33 | 6.09 | 48.46 | 1.64 | - | - | 17.61 | [104] | |
Coconut | Husk | 8.50 | 61.50 | 33.11 | 5.39 | 49.59 | 5.30 | 36.87 | 0.38 | 0.01 | 18.22 | 19.31 | [105] |
Husk | 6.70 | 61.78 | 31.52 | 6.70 | 49.03 | 5.37 | 38.36 | 0.41 | 0.13 | - | 19.33 | [106] | |
Husk | 9.96 | 72.60 | 15.21 | 2.23 | 48.95 | 5.40 | 43.10 | 0.40 | - | - | - | [107] | |
Husk | - | 82.94 | 16.14 | 0.92 | 47.00 | 6.07 | 46.60 | 0.21 | 0.12 | - | 15.44 | [77] | |
Husk | - | 73.38 | 22.95 | 4.66 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 16.75 | [108] | |
Shell | 8.83 | 92.16 | 7.35 | 0.49 | 47.70 | 5.44 | 46.25 | 0.06 | 0.03 | - | 24.29 | [109] | |
Shell | 5.67 | 73.89 | 19.55 | 8.89 | 48.35 | 6.21 | 45.25 | 0.18 | 0.01 | - | 17.17 | [110] | |
Shell | 3.29 | 73.80 | 19.40 | 6.78 | 46.77 | 5.61 | 46.83 | 0.79 | - | - | 18.64 | [111] | |
Shell | 15.98 | 72.90 | 19.40 | 0.80 | 46.60 | 7.10 | 41.80 | 0.32 | - | - | 14.10 | [112] | |
Shell | 7.82 | 79.91 | 12.04 | 0.23 | 39.20 | 4.50 | 55.90 | 0.20 | - | - | - | [107] | |
Shell | - | - | - | - | 49.50 | 6.10 | 40.10 | 0.80 | 0.06 | - | 18.90 | [113] | |
Sugarcane | Straw | 16.80 | 80.50 | 19.50 | 20.10 | 50.60 | 6.40 | 44.60 | 2.60 | 0.28 | - | 19.00 | [114] |
Straw | 9.54 | - | - | - | 45.69 | 5.80 | 48.38 | 0.13 | - | - | 17.38 | [115] | |
Straw | 3.12 | 87.61 | 3.22 | 9.17 | 41.88 | 5.87 | 41.72 | 0.47 | - | - | 16.42 | [116] | |
Straw | 8.30 | 71.10 | 14.60 | 6.00 | 42.60 | 5.29 | 43.40 | 0.51 | 0.14 | - | - | [117] | |
Bagasse | 2.80 | 80.32 | 10.14 | 6.75 | 47.40 | 6.14 | 46.18 | 0.28 | 0.10 | - | 18.51 | [118] | |
Bagasse | - | 79.01 | 16.09 | 4.90 | 32.50 | 5.01 | 61.55 | 0.38 | 0.56 | - | 16.53 | [119] | |
Bagasse | - | 83.46 | 14.26 | 2.17 | 46.37 | 6.29 | 46.79 | 0.55 | 0.11 | - | 14.33 | [120] | |
Bagasse | - | - | - | - | 42.52 | 5.92 | 50.38 | 1.18 | - | - | - | [121] | |
Bagasse | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 20.00 | - | [63] | |
Forestry Biomass | |||||||||||||
Eucalyptus | Leaves | 48.40 (in nature) | 80.10 | 16.60 | 3.20 | 54.70 | 6.00 | 34.70 | 1.20 | 0.20 | - | 21.10 | [122] |
Bark | 61.70 (in nature) | 80.40 | 15.10 | 4.50 | 48.10 | 5.50 | 41.70 | 0.10 | 0.10 | - | 20.47 | [122] | |
Wood | 13.18 | 75.21 | 11.00 | 0.10 | 49.29 | 5.91 | 44.68 | 0.09 | 0.03 | - | 18.10 | [123] | |
Wood | 7.60 | 87.95 | 11.59 | 0.46 | 46.13 | 5.90 | 47.83 | 0.14 | - | - | 20.25 | [124] | |
Wood | 12.00 | 83.10 | 16.70 | 0.30 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 19.48 | [125] | |
Wood | 12.00 | 85.49 | 14.16 | 0.34 | - | - | - | - | - | 15.50 | 19.32 | [126] | |
Wood | - | 81.60 | 18.20 | 0.21 | 48.60 | 6.10 | 44.60 | 0.49 | - | 17.89 | 19.28 | [126] | |
Wood | - | 87.00 | 12.80 | 0.30 | 52.30 | 5.90 | 41.40 | 0.00 | 0.10 | - | 19.10 | [122] | |
Pinus | Wood | - | 88.30 | 9.80 | 1.90 | 50.30 | 6.90 | 40.80 | 0.10 | - | - | 18.50 | [59] |
Wood | - | 82.40 | 16.43 | 1.17 | 52.80 | 6.10 | 40.50 | 0.50 | 0.09 | - | 20.80 | [127] | |
Wood | 6.28 | 83.43 | 16.32 | 0.26 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [128] | |
Wood | - | 87.40 | 11.00 | 1.55 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [129] | |
Wood | 67.00 (in nature) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 18.08 | 19.44 | [130] |
Resource | Residue | Extractive [wt.%] | Lignin [wt.%] | Cellulose [wt.%] | Hemicelluloses [wt.%] | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agro-Industrial Residues | ||||||
Soybean | Straw | 15.50 | 15.20 | 37.60 | 27.80 | [59] |
Straw | - | 21.80 | 35.30 | 16.90 | [142] | |
Straw | - | 24.12 | 22.69 | 17.73 | [143] | |
Straw | - | 21.60 | 34.10 | 16.10 | [57] | |
Stalks | - | 19.80 | 34.50 | 24.80 | [144] | |
Husk | 4.80 | 7.80 | 40.60 | 33.80 | [145] | |
Husk | - | 2.10 | 32.90 | 3.10 | [146] | |
Husk | - | 3.70 | 52.30 | 18.50 | [147] | |
Husk | - | 2.10 | 5.10 | 19.40 | [148] | |
Rice | Straw | 1.62 | 25.79 | 42.32 | 19.50 | [67] |
Straw | - | 18.70 | 47.20 | 31.80 | [149] | |
Straw | - | 8.3–9.9 | 19.6–36.2 | 19.0–50.4 | [144] | |
Straw | - | 14–28 | 32–40 | 24.00 | [150] | |
Husk | - | 21.10 | 38.57 | 21.30 | [70] | |
Husk | - | 26.00 | 33.00 | 7.00 | [142] | |
Husk | - | 22.00 | 40.00 | 21.00 | [148] | |
Wheat | Husk | 20.00 | 16.00 | 36.00 | 18.00 | [151] |
Husk | 2.40 | 16.40 | 30.50 | 28.90 | [152] | |
Husk | - | 14.00 | 23.00 | 21.00 | [153] | |
Husk | - | 16.00 | 39.00 | 30.00 | [154] | |
Straw | 20.10 | 20.20 | 34.00 | 23.15 | [150] | |
Straw | - | 16.00 | 30.00 | 26.00 | [149] | |
Straw | - | 8.9–22.1 | 32.9–49.8 | 23.7–25.0 | [144] | |
Corn | Straw | - | 7.02 | 32.72 | 33.35 | [155] |
Straw | - | 6.87 | 24.58 | 25.97 | [155] | |
Stalks | - | 7.0–7.3 (db) | 35.0–39.0 | 16.8–42.0 | [144] | |
Stalks | - | 17.18 | 49.22 | 25.57 | [149] | |
Husk | 19.60 | 15.50 | 32.50 | 30.40 | [150] | |
Husk | - | 14.30 | 31.00 | 34.00 | [148] | |
Cob | 14.25 | 18.50 | 35.75 | 30.70 | [150] | |
Cob | - | 9.40 | 27.71 | 38.78 | [142] | |
Cob | - | 6.10 | 33.70 | 31.90 | [144] | |
Coffee | Husk | 38.00 | 24.30 | 31.50 | 43.80 | [44] |
Husk | - | 27.57 | 41.60 | 21.90 | [91] | |
Husk | 20.53 | 24.15 | 47.29 (hollocellulose) | [89] | ||
Banana | Leaves | 7.32 | 15.00 | 43.34 | 34.34 | [92] |
leaves | 7.59 | 25.25 | 35.20 | 20.28 | [95] | |
stem | 7.60 | 22.30 | 55.50 | 5.40 | [156] | |
stem | 4.90 | 15.30 | 69.40 | 8.80 | [157] | |
Stem | - | 6.08 | 27.79 | 30.08 | [98] | |
Orange | Baggase | 35.30 | 28.70 | 17.10 | 16.60 | [158] |
Bagasse | 21.96 | 29.04 | 40.33 | 8.66 | [101] | |
Bagasse | 29.80 | 9.52 | 28.98 | 31.70 | [102] | |
Bagasse | - | 8.50 | 12.40 | 7.50 | [159] | |
Coconut | Husk | - | 26.69 | 31.60 | 26.33 | [160] |
husk | 5.44 | 43.34 | 26.27 | 26.00 | [106] | |
Husk | - | 46.36 | 21.26 | 17.33 | [142] | |
shell | 4.20 | 29.70 | 29.58 | 23.80 | [161] | |
Shell | 13.96 | 5.35 | 1.70 | 61.96 | [109] | |
Shell | 2.71 | 33.15 | 30.47 | 25.42 | [160] | |
Sugarcane | Straw | 25.00 | 27.00 | 54.00 | 39.00 | [114] |
Straw | 15.31 | 18.21 | 33.13 | 26.25 | [162] | |
Straw | 8.91 | 31.14 | 31.46 | 27.03 | [115] | |
Straw | 4.30 | 19.60 | 37.20 | 30.60 | [163] | |
Straw | - | 16.00 | 30.00 | 22.50 | [164] | |
Bagasse | 12.70 | 19.20 | 36.90 | 26.30 | [119] | |
Bagasse | 6.49 | 26.72 | 44.46 | 20.53 | [121] | |
Bagasse | 4.80 | 19–25 | 35–45 | 25–32 | [150] | |
Bagasse | - | 25.00 | 50.00 | 25.00 | [142] | |
Bagasse | - | 20.30 | 41.60 | 25.10 | [149] | |
Bagasse | - | 11.70 | 36.50 | 26.50 | [164] | |
Forestry Biomass | ||||||
Eucalyptus | Wood | 3.70 | 24.40 | 47.00 | 24.90 | [165] |
Wood | 1.81 | 23.24 | 42.83 | 43.42 | [166] | |
Wood | 4.80 | 23.30 | 38.10 | 36.60 | [167] | |
Wood | - | 14.58 | 48.54 | 28.36 | [168] | |
Wood | - | 31.08 | 68.92 (hollocellulose) - | [124] | ||
Pinus | Wood | 9.00 | 26.30 | 41.10 | 13.70 | [59] |
Wood | 3.06 | 31.56 | 37.20 | 22.88 | [128] | |
Wood | 14.00 | 34.50 | - | - | [169] | |
Wood | 3.20 | 28.00 | 45.50 | 23.10 | [170] | |
Wood | 2.54 | 22.06 | 69.49 (hollocellulose) - | [171] | ||
Wood | 7.10 | 26.50 | 59.00 | 21.10 | [172] | |
Wood | - | 36.10 | 37.80 | 26.10 | [173] |
Index | Range | Slagging and Fouling Inclinations |
---|---|---|
B/A | <0.5 | Low |
0.5–1.0 | Medium | |
1.0–1.75 | High | |
>1.75 | Extremely High | |
Fu | <0.6 | Low |
0.6–40 | Medium | |
>40 | High | |
SR | >72 | Low |
65–72 | Medium | |
<65 | High | |
SI | >0.6 | Low |
0.6–2 | Medium | |
<2 | High |
Resource | Residue | Ash Composition | Ash Fusibility Trends | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | SiO2 | Al2O3 | TiO2 | P2O5 | B/A | B/A + P | Fu | SR | SI | Ref | ||
Agro-Industrial Residues | ||||||||||||||||
Soybean | Stalk | 0.83 | 33.20 | 9.83 | 0.91 | 18.80 | 30.40 | 2.15 | 0.05 | 2.62 | 1.95 | 2.03 | 38.43 | 40.94 | 2.18 | [178] |
Husk | 0.25 | 0.70 | 0.61 | - | 1.06 | 94.87 | 0.84 | 0.03 | 1.25 | 0.03 | 0.04 | - | 98.38 | - | [100] | |
Rice | Straw | 0.73 | 1.61 | 1.89 | 1.85 | 11.30 | 74.31 | 1.40 | 0.02 | 2.65 | 0.23 | 0.26 | 3.02 | 94.61 | 0.27 | [179] |
Straw | 0.46 | 5.92 | 3.61 | 2.08 | 22.92 | 51.02 | 0.23 | 0.04 | 2.83 | 0.68 | 0.74 | 17.05 | 83.63 | 0.38 | [180] | |
Husk | 0.05 | 0.67 | 0.40 | 1.26 | 0.62 | 95.77 | 0.05 | - | 0.46 | - | - | - | 98.84 | 0.57 | [181] | |
Husk | 0.21 | 0.91 | 0.26 | 0.13 | 2.42 | 94.26 | 0.29 | 0.02 | 0.55 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 98.56 | 0.46 | [182] | |
Wheat | Straw | 1.60 | 12.20 | 7.03 | 0.42 | 20.49 | 38.43 | 3.41 | 0.27 | 3.39 | 0.99 | 1.07 | 20.73 | 64.85 | 0.92 | [183] |
Straw | 0.49 | 6.11 | 4.95 | 0.31 | 25.08 | 25.08 | 1.05 | 0.07 | 1.81 | 1.41 | 1.48 | 35.80 | 68.47 | 0.44 | [184] | |
Husk | 0.84 | 5.46 | 0.99 | 0.16 | 11.30 | 43.22 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 85.57 | 0.56 | [185] | |
Husk | 0.08 | 1.20 | 0.80 | - | 0.70 | 95.56 | 0.14 | - | 0.80 | - | - | - | 97.87 | - | [185] | |
Corn | Straw | 1.31 | 21.66 | 15.96 | 0.90 | 20.24 | 26.79 | 1.73 | 0.18 | 2.75 | 2.09 | 2.19 | 44.25 | 40.76 | 1.78 | [186] |
Cob | 1.20 | 10.43 | 0.11 | 2.24 | 31.13 | 19.63 | 1.23 | 0.35 | 7.19 | 2.13 | 2.47 | 70.97 | 62.58 | 0.32 | [85] | |
Coffee | Husk | 2.06 | 13.05 | 4.32 | 0.66 | 52.45 | 14.65 | 1.07 | 0.27 | 4.94 | 4.54 | 4.85 | 240.94 | 42.99 | 0.33 | [182] |
Husk | 0.56 | 17.70 | 4.51 | 0.14 | 46.46 | 1.24 | 0.58 | 0.08 | 3.85 | 36.51 | 38.54 | 1701.39 | 5.16 | 0.48 | [187] | |
Banana | Leaves | 1.14 | - | - | 0.21 | - | 48.70 | 2.60 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [188] |
Leaves | 1.11 | 18.75 | 9.43 | 0.39 | 10.73 | 49.14 | 1.49 | 0.18 | 3.07 | 0.80 | 0.86 | 8.84 | 62.65 | 2.53 | [189] | |
Orange | Bagasse | 2.91 | 22.22 | 6.34 | 0.26 | 31.58 | 3.18 | 5.24 | 0.19 | 10.71 | 7.35 | 8.60 | 234.12 | 9.18 | 0.90 | [100] |
Bagasse | 0.09 | 29.47 | 4.78 | 1.98 | 30.90 | 0.29 | 0.33 | 0.02 | 8.34 | - | - | 3453.43 | 0.84 | 1.04 | [158] | |
Coconut | Husk | 11.90 | 2.33 | 2.19 | 4.82 | 27.50 | 31.60 | 3.00 | 0.30 | 1.60 | 1.40 | 1.44 | 45.14 | 65.81 | 0.14 | [105] |
Shell | 6.16 | 2.41 | 1.54 | 4.62 | 8.48 | 66.75 | 8.48 | 0.01 | 1.54 | 0.31 | 0.33 | 4.04 | 86.85 | 0.30 | [182] | |
Sugarcane | Bagasse | 5.55 | 9.60 | 2.36 | 1.18 | 2.08 | 53.09 | 6.94 | 0.57 | 0.25 | 0.34 | 0.35 | 1.12 | 75.20 | 3.67 | [190] |
Bagasse | 5.42 | 4.00 | 0.63 | 0.19 | 0.96 | 64.12 | 20.01 | 1.12 | 0.38 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 86.45 | 4.03 | [182] | |
Forestry Biomass | ||||||||||||||||
Eucalyptus | Wood | 2.05 | 48.19 | 3.78 | 2.68 | 29.92 | 3.46 | 0.47 | 0.16 | 4.88 | 21.18 | 22.37 | 690.42 | 6.02 | 1.59 | [182] |
Pinus | Wood | 5.93 | 20.04 | 4.55 | 1.42 | 9.76 | 45.23 | 10.6 | 0.64 | 1.29 | 0.74 | 0.76 | 8.26 | 59.71 | 2.20 | [191] |
Wood | 5.8 | 11.7 | 3.3 | 1.3 | 5.9 | 47.4 | 18.1 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 0.42 | 0.44 | 3.04 | 69.50 | 2.08 | [192] |
Feedstock | Source | Operation Parameters | Optimum Obtained Results | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Scenario I—Bioethanol Production | ||||
Soybean | Waste agro-industrial residue (Brazil) | Hydrolysis conditions:
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| [199] |
Soybean strawfarm residue (Korea) |
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| [200] | |
Rice | Rice huskagro-industrial residue (Brazil) | Hydrolysis conditions
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| [199] |
Rice branagro-industrial residue (Brazil) |
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| [199] | |
Wheat | Waste agro-industrial residue (Brazil) | Hydrolysis conditions
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| [199] |
Wheat straw (India) | Pretreatment (100 °C, 2 h—RT overnight):
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| [201] | |
Corn | Corn stover collected from field after corn harvest (Brazil) |
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| [194] |
Corn stalk agricultural farm (Bangladesh) |
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| [202] | |
Coffee |
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Theoretical yield [%]: 67.64 ± 1.39 (coffee husk); 62.78 ± 4.56 (ground coffee husk); 48.07 ± 0.96 (aqueous extract) Sugar conversion [%]: 92.10 ± 0.40 (coffee husk); 92.67 ± 0.52(ground coffee husk); 91.43 ± 0.38 (aqueous extract) Productivity [g/L h]: 1.22 ± 0.02 (coffee husk); 1.15 ± 0.08 (ground coffee husk); 1.03 ± 0.03 (aqueous extract) | [203] |
Coffee pulp Semidry processing coffee (Brazil) |
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| [204] | |
Banana | Banana leaf waste (India) | Steam, alkali (0.1 N NaOH) and acid pretreatment (0.1 N H2SO4) pretreatment [%w/v]: 1:10 (121 °C, 1 h) Sacharification condition: Cellulase (enzyme): produced by Aspergillus niger JD-11 Enzyme loading [FPU/g]: 5–15 Temperature [°C]: 40, 45 and 50 Substrate [%wt./v]: 2 to 6 Surfactant [%vol]: 0.05–0.15 (Tween 80 and PEG 6000)Time [h]: 70 Fermentation condition: Inoculum: S. cerevisiae (40 g/L reduced sugars, pH 5.5, 30 °C for 30 h) | Pretreatment effect on hydrolysis: Higher reduced sugars[mg/g]: 358.11 (acid pretreatment). Main increase at 40 h Enzyme load effect on hydrolysis: Higher reduced sugars [mg/g]: 397.57 (15 FPU/g). 38% more compared with 5 FPU/g. Temperature effect on hydrolysis: Higher reduced sugars [mg/g]: 455.91 (at 45 °C) Surfactant effect on hydrolysis: Higher reduced sugars [mg/g]: 524.83 (0.15% vol of PEG 6000) Substrate concentration effect on hydrolysis: Higher reduced sugars [mg/g]: 524.83 (2% wt./vol of substrate) Higher ethanol production [g/L]: 15.43Conversion factor reduced sugars to ethanol [g/g]: 0.38 Volumetric productivity [g/L·h]: 1.28 (at 12 h) | [205] |
Banana pulp, peels and pseudostem bagasse (Brazil—Simulation study) | Biomass proportions: 1:2:10 (pulp:peels:pseudestem) Inoculum: S. cerevisiae and Pachysolen tannophilus (ATCC32691). pH fermentation: 5 Fermentation time: 36–48 Hydrolysis Temperature [°C]: 120 Hydrolysis Time [min]: 15 | Best ethanol performance at 48 h of fermentation: Reduced sugars before chem pretreatment [g/L]: 151.6 Reduced sugars in hydrolyzed broth [g/L]: 19.5 Ethanol at the beginning of fermentation [g/L]: 0.8 Ethanol at the after fermentation [g/L]: 53.1 Volumetric productivity [g/L·h]: 1.09 Conversion factor reduced sugars to ethanol [g/g]: 0.4 | [206] | |
Orange | Peels (Brazil) | Pretreatment: Ca(OH)2, biomass and destilate water (1:4:20 w/w/v), at 60 °C for 120 min. Enzymatic and dilute acid hydrolysis Enzymes: cellulase and xylanase Acid: HCl | Best cellulose activity [FPU/mL]: 24.08 (ph 4.8, 60 °C) Best xylanase activity [U/kg]:1.99.58 × 10−3 (pH 5.2, 50 °C) Acid Hydrolysis effect:Total reduced sugars [mg/g]: 30.15 (acid concentration 3.5%, 55.82 °C, 45 min) Enzymes effect: Total reduced sugars [mg/g]: 99.66 (7.02 PFU/mL of cellulase, 2.5 U/g xylanase, 36 h) | [207] |
Bagasse (Iran) | ABE Production (acetone-butanol-ethanol) Pretreatment: High-pressure reactor: Biomass to water 1:10 (w/w); T [°C]: 100, 140 and 180; t [min]: 30, 60 and 120 Enzymatic hydrolysis conditions: Cellulase:Hemicellulase 9:1 Cellulase to biomass [FPU/g]: 15; Solid loading [%wt./v]: 5; T [°C]: 45; t [h]: 72 (solid residue from Enzymatic hydrolysis to Anaerobic digestion) Fermentation: C. acetobutylicum NRRL B-591 | Pretreatment effect: Best performance at 180 °C and 120 min Solid solubility [%]: 68.2 Hemicellulosic sugar removal [%]: 86.4 Enzymatic hydrolysis: Total sugar concentration [g/L]: 25.7 (23.3 glucose, 2.4 xylose) (Pre: 140 °C, 120 min) Highest ABE production [g/L]: 4.68 (Pre: 140 °C, 30 min) Per kg of Baggase: 42.3 g biobutanol, 33.1 g acetona, 13.4 g ethanol, 104.54 L biohydrogen, 28.3 L biomethane | [208] | |
Coconut | Husk (Brazil) | Pretreatment: NaOH 5% [mL]: 100, 121 °C, 1 atm for 40 min Enzymatic hydrolysis conditions: Enzyme: Accellerase 1500. Temperature [°C]: 50 Time [h]: 72 Fermentation: PD medium (10 g/L yeast extract; 20 g/L bacteriological peptone, 20 g/L glucose) Time [h]: 18 | Reducing sugars yield [g/100 g]: 45.86 Reducing sugars concentration [g/L]: 8.84 Enzymatic conversion [%]: 88.40 Overall enzymatic yield [g/100 g]: 22.71 Ethanol production [g/L·h]: 0.015 Theoretical maximum yield [gEtOH/g biomass]: 0.078 | [209] |
Husk (Brazil) | Two way strategies SHF and SSF. Pretreatment: solution NaCl at 10% of the acetic acid. | Highest ethanol yield [L EtOH/ton biomass]: 52.7 (SSF) | [210] | |
Sugar cane | Bagasse (Brazil) | Ultrasound (US)-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis. Ultrasound parameters: Temperature [°C]: 25, 30, 37.5, 45, 50. Time [s]: 10, 75, 170, 265, 330. Intensity [W/cm2: 120.6, 150.7, 192.5, 234.4, 263.7 Enzymatic hydrolysis conditions: Enzymes: Celluclast 1.5 L and Cellic CTec2 Temperature [°C]: 50 Time [h]: 24 | Reduced sugar concentration (No US) [g/L]: 2.09 (Celluclast 1.5 L) and 3.20 (Cellic CTeC2) Enzyme and US effect on reduced sugars: Celluclast 1.5 L [% Relative RS Concentration]: 189.37 (330 s, 150.7 W/cm2, 25 °C). Theoretical cellulose yield [%]: 45 (0.487 g/L cellobiose and 3.985 g/L glucose) Cellic CTec2 [% Relative RS Concentration]: 195.39 (75 s, 150.7 W/cm2, 30 °C) Theoretical cellulose yield [%]: 66.31 (0.487 g/L cellobiose and 3.985 g/L glucose) | [211] |
Bagasse (Brazil) | Hydrolysis conditions: Temperature [°C]: 121, Time [min]: 20, Acid hydrolysis with H2SO4: 100 mg/g dry bagasse and solid ratio of 10% Yeast: S. cerevisiae MDS130 immobilized in Ca-alginat Medium: Sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolysate and molasses Fermentation device: Fixed-bed reactor Operation mode: 20 repeated batches | Ethanol production [g/L·h]: 14.06–22.80 Ethanol yield [gEtOH/gTRS] = 0.36–0.51 Highest ethanol concentration [g/L]: 46.98 | [212] | |
Eucalyptus | Sawdust (Uruguay) | Bioethanol and xylosaccharides Pretreatment: Steam explosion with and without NaOH impregnation (10–20%). T[°C]: 180, 190 and 200; t [min]: 10. Enzymatic hydrolysis: Enzyme loading [FPU/mL]: 125; Solid loading [%wt/w]: 15; T [°C]: 50; t [h]: 96 and 168, pH: 4.85 Fermentation: SHF (separate hydrolysis and fermentation), PSSF (simultaneous saccharification and fermentation) and SSF (simultaneous saccharification and fermentation) | Pretreatment effect: Highest Glucose concentration [g/L]: 105 (200 °C, 0% NaOH); Highest Hydrolysis efficiency [%]: 96 (200 °C, 0% NaOH) Ethanol conversion [%]: 78 (SHF), 82 (PSSF), 83 (SSF) Ethanol production [g/L]: 71.8 (SHF), 70.2 (PSSF), 75.6 (SSF) | [213] |
Bark (Portugal) | Two sequential steps of acid hydrolysis: 1) 0.4 mL of 72% wt. H2SO4, T [°C]: room temperature, t [min]: 180 2) 4.4 mL of water was added to obtain a 9% wt. acid solution, T [°C]: 90, 100 and 120 | Highest Glucose concentration [%wt.]: 48.6 (100 °C, 2.5 h) Highest Xylose concentration [%wt.]: 15.2 (90 °C—2 h or 120 °C—0.5 h) Hypothetical ethanol yield [L/ton bark]: 248 | [214] | |
Pinus | Sawdust (Mexico) | Two way strategies SHF and SSF. Pretreatment: HNO3 and NaOH. Concentration [%wt.]: 6 and 12; T [°C]: 100 and 130; t [min]: 30. Enzymatic hydrolysis: Enzyme loading [FPU/g]: 25; t [h]: 72; T [°C]: 48; pH: 4.8 Fermentation: Saccharomyces cerevisiae ITD-00185; pH: 5.5 | (SHF) Highest reducing sugar conversion [%]: 98.64 (10.9% HNO3 at 115 °C and 30 min) Highest ethanol yield [g/L]: 17.1 (40 h) Fermentation yield [%]: 84.1 Hypothetical ethanol yield [L/ton biomass]: 235.3 (SSF) Highest ethanol yield [g/L]: 15.0 Hypothetical ethanol yield [L/ton biomass]: 160 | [215] |
Sawdust (Chile) | Two way strategies SHF and SSF. Pretreatment: Soda ethanol Liquor-to-biomass ratio: 5.44:1; T [°C]: 170; t [min]: 60; EtOH:H2O ratio [%vol]: 35–65 Enzymatic hydrolysis: Enzyme loading [FPU/g]: 30; t [h]: 48; T [°C]: 37; pH: 5 Fermentation: Saccharomyces cerevisiae IMR 1181 (SC 1181) | (SHF): Highest reducing sugar conversion [%]: ~98 Highest bioethanol concentration [g/L]: 3.40 (13 h) Fermentation yield [%]: 89.3 (SSF): Highest bioethanol concentration [g/L]: 5.68 (72 h) Fermentation yield [%]: 100 | [216] | |
Scenario II-Biogas Production | ||||
Soybean | Straw and hull (Brazil) | Subcritical water hydrolysis: Temperature [°C]: 220 Liquid/solid mass ratio: 18 g water/g straw; 15 g water/g hull. Flow rate [mL/min]: 30 Reaction time [min]: 4 (straw); 3 (hull) Fermentation: Yeast: Wickerhamomyces sp. UFFS-CE-3.1.2 10 mL of inoculum and 90 mL of hydrolysate Procedure: orbital shaker at 30 °C and 50 rpm. Hydrolysates supplemented with glucose (10 g/L). Biochemical biogas and methane: Starter inoculant: anaerobic sludge treated with swine manure, fresh dairy cattle manure, and anaerobic mesophilic granular sludge from a gelatin manufactory. Temperature [°C]: 37 Procedure: 250 mL glass reactors. 2 g of straw or hull and 30 g for the samples of hydrolysates or fermented hydrolysates were mixed. Inoculum/Substrate ratio: 2 | Soybean straw hydrolysate [g/L]: 2.16 (glucose); 1.33 (xylose); 0.08 (arabinose); 4.76 (formic acid); 8.22 (acetic acid); 0.28 (HMF); 0.48 (furfural) Soybean hull hydrolysate [g/L]: 0.96 (glucose); 1.11 (xylose); 0.43 (arabinose); 0.09 (cellobiose); 3.24 (formic acid); 3.14 (acetic acid); 0.16 (HMF); 0.31 (furfural) Fermentation of straw hydrolysate (72h) [g/L]: 0.69 ± 0.06 (ethanol); 2.04 ± 0.17 (glucose); 1.08 ± 0.02 (xylose); 7.35 ± 0.65 (acetic acid); 4.17 ± 0.19 (formic acid); 0.30 ± <0.01 (HMF); 0.30 ± <0.01 (furfural) Fermentation of hull hydrolysate (96 h) [g/L]: 0.72 ± 0.01 (ethanol); 1.02 ± 0.25 (glucose); 0.90 ± 0.04 (xylose); 0.40 ± <0.01 (arabinose); 0.09 ± <0.01 (cellobiose) 2.85 ± 0.05 (acetic acid); 2.96 ± 0.02 (formic acid); 0.19 ± <0.02 (HMF); 0.19 ± <0.04 (furfural) Biogas potential:
| [217] |
Molasses (Brazil) | Reactor: Lab-scale up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB) 12 L Organic loads rates [kg COD/m3d]: 0.28–6.98 Time [days]: 134 Temperature [°C]: 23 ± 1–25 ± 1 pH [-]: 7.3–7.8 Mass of soybean molasses [g]: 17.5–140 Flow rate [L/h]: 0.25–1 Inoculum: 3.5 L of anaerobic granular sludge (28.5 gTS/L and 24.4 gTVS/L) Mesophilic conditions | Characterization raw soybean molasses (dry basis): 50g/kg (crude protein); 250 g/kg (moisture); 150 g/kg (ashes); 5g/kg (fat); 3 g/kg (crude fiber); 5.45 pH; 1.35 g/cm3 (Density); 9000–14,000 cP (viscosity); 119 g/kg (stachyose); 50g/kg (raffinose); 199 g/kg (sucrose); 25 g/kg (fructose); 4.64 g/100g (galactose); 6 g/kg (glucose); 400 mg/kg (total sugars); 5.32 g/kg (total carbohydrate); 500 mg/kg (sulfite); 5.5 mg/kg (manganese); 100 mg/kg (calcium); 462 mg/kg (iron); 400 mg/kg (sodium); 0.74 mg/kg (cobalt); 1.30 g/kg (magnesium); 4150 mg/kg (phosphorous). OLR [kg COD/m3d]: 0.28 ± 0.02–6.98 ± 0.35 Biogas production [mL/d]: 12 ± 5–1456 ± 426 Biogas production [mL CH4/g COD]: 23.3–356.1 Methane [%]: 75.5–82.1 | [218] | |
Rice | Husk (Brazil) | Chernicharo methodology COD monitored between 2016–2017, total of 12 samples. The theoretical production of methane: | COD [mg/L]: 3968.9–7540.2 Total rice production [tons/year]: 6.4 × 106 Parboiled rice [tons/year]: 2.3 × 106 Effluent flow [m3/d]: 1.5 × 104 Flow of methane [Nm3/d]: 1.7 × 104 Chemical energy from husk [MJ/y]: 2.1 × 1010 Parboiling energy demand [MJ/y]: 2.4 × 109 Electrical energy fromCH4 [KWh/y]: 2.2 × 107 Thermal energy from CH4 [KWh/y]: 3.1 × 107 Flow of syngas [Nm3/d]: 9 × 106 Electrical energy from syngas [KWh/y]: 7.3 × 108 Total termal energy from genset and gasifier [KWh/y]: 2 × 109 Total energy [KWh/y]: 2 × 1012 | [219] |
Husk (Brazil) | Biodigester: Flow condition: unsteady Flow regime: laminar Simulation time [s]: 1800 Time Step [s]: 60 Reference pressure [atm]: 1 Inlet [m/s]: 0.18 Temperature [°C]: 25 Feeding: 7 L swine manure—150 g rice husk—400 mL inoculum Anaerobic digestion conducted for 21 days | Generation of biogas [mL/g (VSad)]: 85.5–94.3 Biogas on batch step [mL/g (VSad)]: 14.08–15.52 Biogas on complete process [mL/g (VSad)]: 86.30–71.48 CH4 on biomass [%v/v]: 33.6 ± 2.4–34.9 ± 5 Methane on complete process [mL/g(VSad)]: 62.3–53.6 | [220] | |
Wheat | Wheat (Triticum aestivum) straw (Brazil) | Pretreatment methods to wheat straw: acid; alkaline; thermal; acid+thermal; alkaline+thermal Biodigestor capacity [mL]: 300 Nutrient solution: 200 mL of 2 g/L of yeast extract, 7 g/L of K2HPO4, 3 g/L of KH2PO4. Temperature [°C]: 25 Operation time [days]: 274 | Characterization of waste used in bioreactor: Sludge [g/L]: 0.31 (chromium); 1.21 (TKN); 11.27 (TOC); 1.89 (IC); 10.88 (C/N ratio); 34.42% (VS); 7.45 [-] (pH) Leather shavings [%g/g]: 1.14 (chromium); 2.95 (TKN); 32.29 (TOC); 0 (IC); 10.95 (C/N ratio); 90.24% (VS); 4.09 [-] (pH) Wheat straw [%g/g]: 0.60 (TKN); 41.32 (TOC); 0 (IC); 68.87 (C/N ratio); 92.37% (VS); 5.84 [-] (pH) Biogas cumulative volume of VSS added [mL/g]: 4.01–43.15 Methane cumulative volume of VSS [mL/g]: 0.14–10.06 Maximum yield of methane [%]: 7.71–40.61 Days of maximum yield of methane: 161–266 | [221] |
Straw (Chile) | Fungi: white rot fungi incubated in agar Petri dishes for 10 d at 30 °C in MEA medium. Inoculum: Industrial anaerobic reactor treating brewery wastewater. Reactor volume [mL]: 250 pH [-]: 7–7.2 Total solids [%]: 18 Substrate/inoculum ratio [gVS/gVS]: 1 Temperature [°C]: 30 | 0.15 and 30 d of fungal treatment using Pleurotus ostreatus: Biogas yield [mLSTP/g VS]: 235 ± 2–337 ± 3 Biogas yield rate [mLSTP/g VSd]: 13.6 ± 0.9–25.8 ± 1.3 | [222] | |
Corn | Vinasse (Brazil) | The vinasse from corn uses the volume of ethanol produced in Brazil in 2019/20 to estimate the bioenergy. Temperature [°C]: 32–37 Reactor: UASB | Corn vinasse: 67.5 kg/m3 (COD); 87 m3/kgCOD (ECOD); 71.25% (CH4 in biogas); 0.295 m3 CH4//kgDQOrem; 25.44 MJ/kg (LHV biogas); 150 days (season period). Biogas flow rate [m3/h]: 8.52 × 108 Potential power generates from corn biogas [MW/year]: 2.27 × 108 Potential the bioenergy from biogas [MWh/year]: 7.35 × 105 Carbon credits from corm use [tCO2eq/y]: 1.22 × 106–4.29 × 105 | [223] |
Stalk (Brazil) | Pretreatment: humid steam in autoclave in the presence of H2SO4 and H2O2 in an orbital shaker Reactor volume [mL]: 250 pH [-]: 7–7.2 Volatile solids [%]: 10 Substrate/inoculum ratio [gVS/gVS]: 1 Temperature [°C]: 37 | Biogas [LNbiogas/kgVSad]: 650 (Pretreatment with H2O2); 550 (not sifted and untreated); 540 (Sifted and untreated); 350 (pretreated with H2SO4) Stalk pretreated with H2O2 produced about 86% more LNbiogas/kgVSad when compared to the biomass pretreated with H2SO4. | [224] | |
Coffee | Husk(Brazil) | Ozone pretreatment to generate hydrolysates for biogas Inoculum: mixture of bovine manure and anaerobic sludge (1:1 [w/w]) Temperature [°C]: 35 Anaerobic digestion: single stage; two stage; single stage with PAC. | Single-stage anaerobic digestion: Maximum methane production [NmL CH4/g CH]: 36 with hydrolysate (10 mL/g) (LSR); 11 (pH); 18.5 mg O3/g CH (SAOL); 0.064 kJ/g CH (energy recovery). Two-stage anaerobic digestion: Maximum methane production [NmL CH4/g CH]: 49, produced 0.26 kJ/g CH (energy recovery). | [225] |
Wastewater (Brazil) | Mesophilic anaerobic biodigestion 4 digestors filled with 1.5 L of substrate Temperature [°C]: 35–40 Reactor volume [L]: 2 | Physicochemical parameters of coffee wastewater (INPUT): 3.87–4.50 (pH); 2082–2485 mg/L (COD); 602–1503 mg/L (BOD); 6640–7269 mg/L (TS); 535–1046 mg/L (FS); 6105–6223 mg/L (VS); 11–25 mg/L (TN); 86–92% (VS:TS); 1.39–4.13 (COD:DBO) Biogas composition: 10–38 (Hydraulic Retention Times); 0.2–11.4% (CH4); 6.4–35.7 (CO2); 9.1–17.3% (O2); 54→2000 ppm (CO); 9–1648 ppm (H2S); 53.1–76.4% (Balance) | [226] | |
Banana | Peduncle (India) | Pretreatments: Thermal, alkali and extrusion Biomethane potential (BMP): automated methane potential test system II (AMPTS II), Temperature [°C]: 37 Inoculum: Seed sludge | Specific CH4 yield [mL/g volatile solids]: 527.6 (Thermal 120 °C, 60 min), 298.9 (Alkali 5% NaOH, 1 h) and 248.02 (extruded, twin screw). Optimized Yields [mL/g volatile solids]: 527.6 (thermal 120 °C, 60 min), 298 | [227] |
Leaf, stem, and peduncle (Kenya) | Time [day]: 51 Temperature [°C]: 37 Inoculum: digested sludge | CH4 production [mLN/g organic dry matter]: 63.34 Net biogas production [ml]: 400 CH4 yield [m3/kgoDM]: 0.062 Biogas composition [wt.]: 65.335 (CH4), 34.665 (CO2) | [228] | |
Orange | Peels (Brazil) | Two-stage anaerobic digestion Stage I (acidogenic, pH 5–6), Stage II (methanogenic, pH 7–8) Anaerobic digestion conditions: Temperature [°C]: 35, time [days]: 25.8 Inoculum characteristics: Mesophilic anaerobic sludge, pH: 7.53, TS an VS [%]: 9.07 and 8.03 Reactor mix: [%v/v]: 35 (biomass), 26 (inoculum) and 39 (water) | Highest cumulative CH4 yield [L/gVS]: 0.79 (in methanogenic stage), 38% more than simple stage reactor. Cumulative biogas volume [cm3]: 13,000 (stage I), 10,000 (stage II) Total Biogas yield [m3/ton biomass]: 18.21 Potential electricity generation [MWh/year]: 97.5 × 103 in São Paulo State Potential emission mitigation [tCO2eq/year]: 7.5 × 103 and 9.05 × 103 in São Paulo State | [229] |
Peels, seeds, bagasse | Treatment: pectin and essential oil extraction. Anaerobic digestion conditions: VDI 4630 procedure, time [h]: 500 Inoculum characteristics: pig manure, VS [g/kg dry matter)]: 45 Inoculum to substrate ratio: 2:1 | Highest cumulative CH4 yield [mL/gVS]: 223 (oils extraction), 222 (pectin extraction), 190 (untreated) | [230] | |
Coconut | Spent copra (Nigeria) | Pretreatment: Mix with cow urine (CU) at different ratios. CU to copra [mL to g]: 1:15, 1:7, 1:5 Anaerobic digestion conditions: Temperature [°C]: 45, time [days]: 42 Inoculum characteristics: anaerobic digester sludge, pH: 7.1, TS and VS [%]: 9.5 and 5.5 | Highest cumulative biogas yield [mL/gVS]: 786 (CU to copra ratio 1:7), 225 (unpretreated copra) Highest cumulative CH4 yield [mL/gVS]: 648.5 (CU to copra ratio 1:7), 99.9 (unpretreated copra) Highest CH4 yield [mL/gVS]: 77 (for all pretreatment ratios at day 12), 38 (unpretreated copra at day 24) | [231] |
Shell | Pretreatment: pyrolysis at 600 °C Pyroligneous detoxification: oxidation by H2O2: 0–12%, temperature [°C]: 10, time [h]: 4 Anaerobic digestion conditions: Temperature [°C]: 37, time [days]: 4 Inoculum characteristics: Anaerobic granular sludge, pH: 7.74, TS and VS [mg/L]: 13.69 and 9.33 Inoculum to substrate ratio: 3:2 | Highest biogas volume [mL]: 1190 ((pretreatment 10% H2O2)) Highest CH4 yield [L/gCOD]: 0.317 (pretreatment 4% H2O2) | [232] | |
Sugar cane | Bagasse (Brazil) | Hydrothermal pretreatment: NaOH [M]: 0.7–2.3, Temperature [°C]: 146.4–213.6, time [min]: 3.2–36.8 Anaerobic co-digestion conditions: Temperature [°C]: 55 time [days]: 52 Inoculum characteristics: from industrial biogas plant Inoculum to substrate [gVS/gVS]: 2:1 | Higher CH4 content in the biogas [%]: 70 (pretreatment conditions of: 200 °C, 2.0 M NaOH, 30 min; 160 °C, 2.0 M, NaOH, 30 min; 180 °C, 2.34 M NaOH, 20 min) | [233] |
Bagasse (Brazil) | Enzymatic pretreatment and two stages anaerobic process Pretreatment (Trametes versicolor laccase): Temperature [°C]: 50, time [min]: 120 Stage I (acidogenic/fermentative): pH: 6.8, Temperature [°C]: 37, time [days]: 8 Inoculum characteristics: Pure Paraclostridium sp. isolated from sugarcane bagasse. Stage II (methanogenic): Temperature [°C]: 37, time [day]: 10Inoculum characteristics: Microbial consortium from anaerobic sludge. TVS [g TVS/g]: 0.84. | Stage I: H2 production rate [mL/L·h]: 3.2 H2 production [mL/L·h]: 166.8 Stage II: CH4 production rate [mL/L·h]: 2.31 CH4 production [mL/L·h]: 870.8 | [234] | |
Eucalyptus | Wood (Colombia) | Alkali pretreatment: solution NaOH (8% wt./v), solid liquid ratio 1:5 (wt./v), Temperature [°C]: 130, time [min]: 60 Anaerobic digestion (Remanent solid): pH: 7, Temperature [°C]: 37, time [days]: 20 Inoculum: sludge form water treatment Inoculum characteristics: TS and VS [%]: 6.4 and 5.7 | Highest daily biogas production [mL/gVS.d]: 13.1 Highest cumulative biogas yield [mL/gVS]: 163 Highest cumulative CH4 yield [ML/gVS]: 87.9 | [235] |
Pinus | Fresh needles, needle litter, bark and branches (Greece) | Mesophilic anaerobic digestion: Temperature[°C]: 38, time [days]: 30 Inoculum: took from a full-scale digester treating agro-industrial wastes and energy crops. Inoculum characteristics: pH: 7.8, ammonia nitrogen and orthophosphates [mg/L]: 24,411 and 83, TS and VS [g/L]: 34.9 and 22.3 | CH4 yield [ mLN/g VS]: 164 (fresh needles after 26 days), 138 (branches after 30 days), 85 (bark after 30 days), 77 (needle litter after 26 days) CH4 production potential [Nm3/km]: 500 (needle litter accumulated on adjacent forest roads) | [236] |
Sawdust (Egypt) | Anaerobic digestion: Temperature [°C]: 30, time [days]: 35 Pretreatment: lignocellulosic degradation microbial consortium (LCDC) from rotten sawdust. Inoculum characteristics: pH: 7.01, total dissolved solids [mg/L]: 910, TS and VS [% db]: 9.33 and 5.68 | Highest daily biogas production [L/kgVS.d]: 15.7 (untreated after 19 days) and 15.9 (pretreated after 13 days) Highest significant cumulative biogas yield [L/kgVS]: 248.4 (untreated after 28 days) and 312.0 (pretreated residue after 28 days) Highest significant cumulative CH4 yield [L/kgVS]: 155.2 (pretreated residue after 28 days), 72.6% more than untreated. | [237] | |
Scenario III—Combustion | ||||
Rice | Husk (Brazil) | Reactor: atmospheric bubbling fluidized bed pilot Bed material: sand (particle size 0.5 –1 mm) and 95% silica content. Temperature [°C]: 834–877 O2 [%]: 5–9.9 6% O2 excess | Main characteristic of the feedstock: high volatile matter (74 wt.%) and medium ash content (12.8 wt.%). Silicon (87.7% as SiO2), potassium (5.4% as K2O) and phosphorous (3.7% as P2O5). CO2 [%]: 11.6–14.4 CO [mg/Nm3]: 1085–1808 NOx [mg/Nm3]: 100–430 Combustion efficiency [%]: 97.2–98.9 | [238] |
Wheat | Straw (Brazil) | Technique: TGA curve analysis Isothermal conditions Heating rates [°C/min]: 5–100 Maximum temperature [°C]: 900 | Kinetics parameters: 85.4 [kJ/mol] (Activation energy); 3.1 × 106 [1/min] (Pre-exponential factor) Combustion scheme: evolution of volatiles (up to 300 °C); ignition of volatiles (500–650 °C), burning of volatiles (650–800 °C), and burning of char (700–850 °C) Direct combustion at low heating rates is favored with respect to the devolatilization/char burnout schemes. Alkali K2O crosses the stability regions of CO and CO2 at a temperature as low as 427 °C. | [239] |
Coffee | Husk (Kenya) | Reactor: pilot-scale fluidized bed (FBC) Reactor bed material: quartz sand (0.48 mm) T [°C]: 500–900 Flue gas (O2) concentration [vol%]: 10–16 | Exhaust gas composition (mg/m3): NOx = 450–525; N2O = 3–27 N concentration in volatiles [%]: 54.2 (at 500 °C); 52 (at 600 °C); 53.2 (at 700 °C); 60.2 (at 800 °C); 67.6 (at 900 °C) Ash concentration [wt.%]: SiO2 = 16.6; FeO3 = 2.4; P2O5 = 3.4; Al2O3 = 4.5; CaO = 9.8; MgO = 3.7; Na2O = 0.5; K2O = 36.9 Note: over 700 °C sintering observed | [240] |
Banana | Leaves and stem (Brazil) | Technique: TGA curve analysis Oxidative atmosphere (syntetic air) Comparison between loose and briquetted biomass Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 Operational temperature [°C]: 25–900 | Temperature ranges are the same, but there is a lower rate of mass loss in the first stage in loose biomass compared to briquettes First stage temperature range. Leaves: 180–400 °C; Tm [°C]: 280. Stem: 180–360 °C; Tm [°C]: 275 Second stage temperature range: Leaves: 400–580 °C. Stem [°C]: 360–600 | [241] |
Leaves (Brazil) | Technique: TGA curve analysis Oxidative atmosphere (syntetic air) Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 Operational temperature [°C]: 22–900 Optical dilatometer at a heating rate [°C/min]: 5 Emissions quantification was carried out in open grill and using a multi flue gas analyzer (5 measurements in 15 min) | Single degradation stage Ti [°C]: ~200; Tm [°C]: ~300; Tb [°C]: ~550 From optical dilatometer: Remaining mass [wt.%]: 98.72 (100 °C); 43.59 (400 °C); 36.32 (899 °C) Max CO2 release [%]: 0.48 (6 min) Max CO [ppm]: 200 (6 min); 700 (15 min) | [242] | |
Orange | Bagasse (Greece) | Technique: lab-scale fluidized bed reactor; 2 m height. Reaction time [h]: 4 Minimum fluidization velocity [m/s]: 0.25 Air flow rates [m3/h]: 4.53–5.94; Excess air ratios [-]: 1.3–1.7 Biomass feed rate [g/min]: 0.84 Bed temperature [°C]: 805–988 Freeboard temperatures [°C]: 810–838 | The orange bagasse has a high slagging and fouling tendency. Ash composition [%wt.]: 2.4 (SiO2); 3.0 (Al2O3); 0.2 (Fe2O3); 9.4 (MgO); 15.1 (CaO); 4.2 (Na2O); 37.1 (K2O); 0.01 (TiO2); 3.5 (P2O5); 0.01 (MnO); 4.7 (SO3) HHV [MJ/kg]: 16.7 CO heat loses [%]: 1.13 Efficiency [%]: 97.6 Low levels of heavy metals such as Cr, As, Hg and Pb. Toxic elements As, Cd, Hg, Co and Pb ranged from <0.2 ppm to 36 ppm Unburned carbon ashes [%]: 0.50 (bottom ash); 0.70 (fly ash) | [243] |
Bagasse (United Kingdom) | Technique: fixed bed reactor coupled with a mass spectrometer (MS) | EDX orange bagasse [%wt.]: C = 60.2; O = 38.6; K = 0.7; Ca = 0.3; S = 0.2 EDX ashes [%wt.]: C = 35.9; O = 34.5; K = 17.5; Ca = 7.6; P = 1.6: S = 1.4; Mg = 1.0; Cl = 0.4; Si = 0.1 Two stages combustion: 160–370 °C and 440–600 °C Main emissions: N2O, H2O, CO2 and O2 Low level gas emissions: H4, H2, C2H6, CH3CHO, NO and NO2 Surface area [m2/g]: 1.89 Pore volume [cm3/g]: 0.002 Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 Ti [°C]: 260; Tb [°C]: 529; Release heat [W/g]: 1828.6 Heating rate [°C/min]: 20 Ti [°C]: 268; Tb [°C]: 572; Release heat [W/g]: 3294.1 Heating rate [°C/min]: 30 Ti [°C]: 275; Tb [°C]: 632; Release heat [W/g]: 3881.2 | [244] | |
Coconut | Husk | Technique: Lab scale combustion Particle size [µm]: 250–300 Operational temperature [°C]: 650 | When Tc (600–750) flue gas main component was HCl (inhibits CO and CO2 oxidation) When Tc (1000) in flue gas [KCl] 5 times higher than [HCl] Liquid salt solution formation at 600 °C (KCl–NaCle–K2SO4–Na2SO4) reporting its maximum amount at 720 °C and disappearing at 980 °C Three groups of condensed phases were identified in ash: alkali metal salts (solid and liquid), other solid salts, and solid oxides. | [105] |
Husk-shell (Ghana) | Technique: Pilot scale biochar unit Biomass [kg]: 5 Sample drying time [days]: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 Direct gas detection from the chimney (no filters) | HHV [MJ/kg]: 11.54 (Uncharred biomass); 21.30 (Charred biomass) CO [ppm](drying time, MC): 9.7 (3 days, 36.4 MC%); 7 (18 days, 10.3 MC%) CO emissions 40% higher than the standard WHO 24-hr AQG (6ppm) Change in smoke color indicates reduction on the volatiles amount and water vapor: thick white (3 days), light smoke (>15 days). PM2.5 [µg/m3]: 1200 (3 days); 994 (6–12 days); 1169 (18 days) PM2.5 120% higher than the value indicated by quality guidelines (10 µg/m3) | [245] | |
Sugar cane | Bagasse | Reactor type: Lab-Scale Combustion and gasification Simulator Biomass flow rate [g/h]: 3 Primary air–fuel ration (λ): 0.85 Raw SCB: steam explosion (SE) treated and pelletized Pelletization carried out using a Khal pelletizer 14–175 with a flat-die type AKN1. Grinded pellets size [mm]: 1.0 | After steam explosion the SCB ash content increased from 2.2 to 4.7 wt.% SCB (both raw and SE) are primarily composed of Si (35–45 wt.%), K (10–15 wt.%) and Ca, Al, Fe and Mg (5–10 wt.%). SCB slagging propensity is qualified as severe. The slag deposit formed by SE-SCB was less molten and more sintered. SE has positive impact on slagging behavior. Element deposit composition of SCB [wt.%]: 44.3 (O); 29.3 (Si); 7.3 (Fe); 5.5 (Al); 4.6 (K); 2.9 (Ca); 2.6 (C); 1.6 (Ti); 1.2 (Mg) Element deposit composition of SE-SCB [wt.%]: 47.8 (O); 31.8 (Si); 6.4 (Fe); 2.9 (Al); 2.9 (K); 2.5 (Ca); 2.0 (C); 1.6 (Ti); 1.2 (Mg) Specific fouling factor [(K.m2)/(W.MJ)]: 1.66 (SCB); 0.62 (SE-SCB); low fouling factors NOx concentration [g(NO)/GJ fuel]: ~150 (SCB); ~155 (SE-SCB) | [246] |
Bagasse (Chile) | Technique: CFD model. Continuous phase (gas mix): (volatiles, O2, CO2, water vapor, CO and N2) Biomass flow rate [kg/s]: 22.63 at 300 K Air flows [kg/s]: 33.64 at 544 K (primary air); 42.04 at 625 k (secondary air); 7.76 at 544 K (pneumatic air) | Furnace outlet T [°C]: 900 Larger particle size yield a more complete and efficient combustion, but are more likely to reach the rear wall and increase the possibility of slagging. For particle size (1.78 mm): Moisture [%] = 23.50 (grate), 0.00 (exit); Volatiles [%]: 86.60 (grate), 0.11 (exit); Char [%]: 96.67 (grate), 1.67 (exit) Gas flow at furnace exit [g/s]: 5.37 Gas flow components at furnace exit [kg/s]: 7.77 (O2); 15.27 (CO2); 18.37 (H2O); 4.19 (CO); 64.28 (N2) | [247] | |
Eucalyptus | Wood and bark (Pakistan) | Technique: TGA curve analysis Heating rate [°C/min]: 25, 35, 45 Operational temperature [°C]: 25–950 | Heating rate [25]: Ti [°C]: 260; Tm [°C]: 420; Tb [°C]: 900; CCF: 1.1; Rm [%/s·°C]: 1.9 Heating rate [35]: Ti [°C]: 270; Tm [°C]: 370; Tb [°C]: 930; CCF: 1.5; Rm [%/s·°C]: 3.5 Heating rate [45]: Ti [°C]: 280; Tm [°C]: 540; Tb [°C]: 940; CCF: 1.2; Rm %/s·°C]: 1.8 Insignificant contents of sulfur and nitrogen were detected in the wood, which would reduce the environmental impacts in terms of SOx and NOx emissions. Rm (Mean Reactivity); CCF (Combustion characterization factor) | [248] |
Wood (Chile) | Technique: Combustion in controlled combustion chamber for emissions Wood MC [wt.%]: 0 and 25 | Gas pollutants emissions [vol%]: At 0% MC: Max CO2: 10.66% vol; max CO: 2077 ppm; higher T: 537 °C Combustion efficiency [%]: 93.6 Emissions factor [g/kg]: 38.98 (CO); 1701.62 (CO2) Emission factor for PM2.5 [g/kg]: 2.01 Emission factors of total PAHs [ng/g]: 5215.47 At 25% MC: Max CO2: 1.25% vol; max CO: 3742 ppm; higher T: 236 °C Combustion efficiency [%]: 49.3 Emissions factor [g/kg wood): 104.84 (CO); 795.04 (CO2) Emission factor for PM2.5 [g/kg]: 22.90 Emission factors of total PAHs[ng/g]: 7644.48 | [249] | |
Pinus | Wood (China) | Technique: TGA curve analysis Heating rate [°C/min]: 5 and 40 Operational temperature [°C]: 50–600 Air flow rate [mL/min]: 60 | In the study, combustion performance of pine wood was compared with bamboo branches and Lentinus edodes, having the pine wood the best combustion performance. Combustion index [×10−7%/min2 K]: 1.97 (5 °C/min), 70.37 (40 °C/min) Flammability index [10−4%/min K2]: 1.12 (5 °C/min), 5.88 (40 °C/min) Ignition index [−2%/min3]: 0.27 (5 °C/min), 86.70 (40 °C/min) Burn out index [−2%/ min4]: 0.002 (5 °C/min), 5.296 (40 °C/min) | [250] |
Wood (USA) | Reactor: Integrated Exposure Generation System (platform developed by the authors) Wood MC [%]: 6 and 24 Combustion condition: Flaming (F), Smoldering (S), Incomplete combustion (IC). Final temperature [°C]: 400 (F and IC) and 250 (S), Heating rate [°C/min]: 20 (F, S and IC) O2 [%vol]: 20.9 (F and S) and 5 (IC) | Bulk inorganic element concentration [wt.%]:0.0468 Relative wood inorganics [%wt.]: 49 (Ca); 15 (K); 14 (Mg); 12 (Al); 4 (S); 2 (Mn); 2 (Na). Gas pollutants: CO emissions [ppm] Moisture effect on [CO ppm]: 63 (6% MC); 49 (24% MC) Combustion condition effect on [CO ppm]: 63 (F); ∼0.3 (S); 13 (IC) VOC emissions [ppb] Moisture effect on [VOC ppb]: 2415 (6% MC); 2436 (24% MC) Combustion condition effect on [VOC ppb]: 2415 (F); 580 (S); 3021 (IC) | [251] | |
Scenario IV—Gasification | ||||
Soybean | Straw (Brazil) | CFB gasifier in Aspen PlusTM Assumptions: zero-dimensional; steady-state; isothermal conditions; drying and pyrolysis occur instantaneously; inert ashes; char is 100% carbon; fuel-bound N, S, and Cl are converted into NH3, H2S, and HCl, respectively; heat loss neglected; thermodynamic model: Peng-Robinson with Boston-Mathias (PR-BM); feedstock particle size and density not influence; gasifier operated below the ash melting point. Temperature [°C]: 779–920.71 | Syngas composition [%vol]: 14.07–45.24 (H2); 5.68–20.88 (CO); 20.58–37.29 (CO2); 13.12–40.97 (CH4) HHV syngas [MJ/m3]: 13.13–18.33 Flow rate syngas [kg/h]: 19.62–21.69 Heat duty gasifier [MJ/kg]: 4.59–8.82 H2/CO: 1.44–3.92 The cold gas efficiency [%]: 68.46–77.22 | [252] |
Straw (Canada) | Fixed bed tubular batch reactor Conditions: subcritical water (300 °C) and supercritical water (400 and 500 °C). Biomass-to-water ratio: 1:5 and 1:10 Biomass particle size [mm]: 0.13 and 0.8 Residence time [min]: 30–60 Pressure range [MPa]: 22–25 Hydrothermal gasification process using Aspen Plus program. | Maximum H2 yield [mmol/g]: 6.62 Total gas yields [mmol/g]: 14.91 Carbon gasification efficiency [%]: 20.2 Lower heating value [kJ/Nm3]: 1592 Hydrogen selectivity [%]: 63.0 Product yield [wt.%]: 6.28 ± 0.33–8.13 ± 0.30 (Solid product); 57.92 ± 1.41–75.46 ± 0.64 (Liquid product); 3.14 ± 0.16–4.54 ± 0.01 (gas product). ratio of the experimental yield to the equilibrium yield values of CH4, CO2 and H2 yields for the non-catalytic gasification of soybean straw at 500 °C were 17.9%, 27% and 57.6%. | [57] | |
Rice | Husk (Brazil) | CFB gasifier in Aspen PlusTM Temperature [°C]: 779–920.71 | Syngas composition [%vol]: 15.72–47.72 (H2); 4.26–19.93 (CO); 21.31–39.57 (CO2); 11.23–39.19 (CH4) HHV syngas [MJ/m3]: 12.42–17.94 Flow rate syngas [kg/h]: 17.03–19.58 Heat duty gasifier [MJ/kg]: 3.46–7.36 H2/CO: 1.65–4.48 The cold gas efficiency [%]: 66.55–76.29 | [252] |
Husk (Indonesia) | Fixed bed downdraft reactor Air at equivalence ratio: 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 Air flows [m3/h] = 1.07, 1.43, 1.79 Temperature [°C] = 600–800 Reaction time [1/min]: 10–30 | Syngas composition; H2 (8.05%,), CO (15.41%,), CH4 (<2%). Cold gas efficiency of the gasifier = 72.73% gas yield: 4.33 Nm3/gas. Tar formed from 5.8 to 53.3 g/Nm3 | [253] | |
Wheat | Straw (Brazil) | CFB gasifier in Aspen PlusTM Temperature [°C]: 779–920.71 | Syngas composition [%vol]: 11.16–41.95 (H2); 4.70–22.95 (CO); 19.51–38.51 (CO2); 16.29–43.82 (CH4) HHV syngas [MJ/m3]: 13.97–19.50 Flow rate syngas [kg/h]: 20.96–23.03 Heat duty gasifier [MJ/kg]: 8.22–12.91 H2/CO: 1.00–3.25 The cold gas efficiency [%]: 71.57–81.41 | [252] |
Corn | Straw (Brazil) | CFB gasifier in Aspen PlusTM Temperature [°C]: 779–920.71 | Syngas composition [%vol]: 13.88–44.68 (H2); 4.51–21.24 (CO); 22.52–42.02 (CO2); 11.81–37.04 (CH4) HHV syngas [MJ/m3]: 12.34–17.27 Flow rate syngas [kg/h]: 19.37–21.78 Heat duty gasifier [MJ/kg]: 3.14–7.08 H2/CO: 1.38–3.82 The cold gas efficiency [%]: 68.09–77.29 | [252] |
Coffee | Husk | Reactor type: Fluidized bed gasifier T [°C]: 790 Airrate/Biomassadmission [kg/h/Nm3/h]: 0.48 | Syngas Composition (vol%): H2 = 12.4; CO = 11.4; CH4 = 1.6; CO2 = 18.7; N2 = 52.3; C2H4 = ~4.36; C2H6 = ~1.01; C2H2 = ~3.86. HHV (MJ·Nm−3): 3.34 | [254] |
Banana | Stem | Reactor type: pilot-scale plant Operational temperature [°C]: 368 Biomass [g]: 11.75 Particle size [mm]: 1.84 Atmospheric pressure Catalyzer: Ni/Al2O3 [Ni% w/w]: 1.5, 2.5 and 5 Fluidization agent: superheated water vapor | Gas composition [% molar]: Ni [0%]: 25.79 (H2); 47.15 (CO2); 3.87 (CO); 20.32 (C2H4); 2.21 (CH4). HHV [kcal/kg]: 3342.5, LHV [kcal/kg]: 3077.4 Best hydrogen yield: Ni [2.5%]: 51.78 (H2); 22.54 (CO2); 0 (CO); 25.01 (C2H4); 0.44 (CH4). HHV [kcal/kg]: 5057.0, LHV [kcal/kg]: 4604.0 | [255] |
Peel | Reactor type: fixed bed Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 Gasification agent: Steam (200 °C) Biomass [g]: 1 Operational temperature [°C]: 650–850 Operational time [h]: 2 | Ash composition: 3.5 (Ca); 67.3 (K); 2.4 (Na); 2.8 (Si); 21.8 (Cl); 2.2 (other) 50% weight loss (T50) [°C]: 386.1 Best hydrogen yield at 850 °C Carbo conversion efficiency increase as temperature increase having a max near to 70% at 850 °C | [48] | |
Orange | Bagasse (USA) | Technique: Gasification under TGA curve analysis For gasification: (1) the pyrolysis step at 20 K/min to 800 °C, (2) isothermal step of 15 min to stabilize the weight in the TGA Gasifying agent: 100% CO2 Particle size [mm]: 0.6–0.8 | Reactivity [min−1]: ~0.15 The high reactivity of orange peel char is attributed to its high potassium content (catalytic role) Ash content and inorganic elements [%]: ~3 (ash feed basis); 12 (ash char basis); 0.68 (Ca); 0.007 (Fe); 3.8 (K); 0.11 (Mg); 0.005 (Al); 0.23 (P); 0.14 (S); 0.07 (Si) Inorganic index: 3.65 Time for 95% conversion [min]: 3 | [256] |
Bagasse (Italy) | Reactor type: bench-scale fluidized bed reactor Operational temperature [°C]: 700, 750 and 850 Steam to biomass [wt/wt]: 0.5, 0.75, 1 and 1.25 Particle size [mm]: 0.4–1 Biomass flow rate [g/min]: 0.3–2 Gasifying agent: air-steam | Syngas composition and H2 yields [Nm3/kgbiom] are function of (S/B) and T. Max H2 concentration [%vol]: 26.5 (S/B: 1.5; T: 750 °C) Max H2 yield [Nm3/kgbiom]: 0.69 (S/B: 1.5; T: 750 °C) Max syngas yield [Nm3/kgbiom]: 2.45 (S/B: 1.5; T: 750 °C) At 750 °C, as the S/B increases from 0.5 to 1.25, the N2% vol decreases from 44% to 41% Max carbon efficiency: ~ 0.90 (S/B: 0.5; T: 850 °C) Max cold gas efficiency: 0.64 (S/B: 0.5; T: 850 °C) | [257] | |
Coconut | Shell (India) | Reactor type: fixed bed downdraft reactor Gasifying medium: air Equivalence ratio (ER): 0.1–0.45 | Gas composition: CO [%]: ~11 (ER: 0.1) to ~18 (ER:0.35) H2 [%]: ~11 (practically constant throughout the process) CH4 [%]: ~10 (ER: 0.1) to ~ 4 (ER: 0.35) Max HHV [MJ/Nm3]: 4.229 (ER: 0.35) Specific gas generation [m3 of gas/kg of fuel]: 2.1 (ER: 0.1); 3.05 (ER: 0.45) Max cold gas efficiency [%]: 72.47 (ER: 0.35) Max hot gas efficiency [%]: 78.37 (ER: 0.35) Optimun operational T [°C]: 900 (ER: 0.35) Tar in gas at optimum operational condition [g/m3]: 0.62; Particle matter in gas at optimum operational condition [g/m3]: 0.215 | [258] |
Husk (India) | Reactor type: packed bed gasification column Biomass [g]: 20 Particle size [mm]: 0.25, 0.72, 2 and 3 Operational temperature [°C]: 700–850 Heating rate [°C/min]: 50 Gasifying medium: air Air relative humidity [%]: 55–95 Equivalence ratio (ER): 0.1–0.4 | Gasification started after 700 °C T effect (p.s: 0.72, ER: 0.1): Max H2 in flue gas [mole]: 7.67 (800–850 °C) Max CO in flue gas [mole]: ~16 (850 °C) Max CH4 in flue gas [mole]: 7.17 (700 °C); Max GY [Nm3/kg]: 0.78 Max carbon conversion (C-conv) [%]: 22.18 Max HHV [MJ/Nm3]: 4.9 (850 °C) ER effect (p,s: 0.72, T: 800 °C): Max H2 in flue gas [mole]: ~ 8 (0.1 ER) Max CO in flue gas [mole]: ~18 (0.2 ER) Max CH4 in flue gas [mole]: 7.41 (0.3 ER); Max GY [Nm3/kg]: 2.89 Max carbon conversion (C-conv)[%]: 77.53 Max HHV [MJ/Nm3]: ~5.4 (0.2–0.3) RH effect (p.s: 0.72, T: 800 °C, ER: 0.1): Max H2 in flue gas [mole]: 10.26 (0.1 ER) Max CO in flue gas [mole]: ~18 (0.2 ER) Max CH4 in flue gas [mole]: 13.13 (0.3 ER); Max GY [Nm3/kg]: 1 Max carbon conversion (C-conv)[%]: 42.56 Max HHV [MJ/Nm3]: 8.81 (95% RH) Biochar specific surface [m2/g]: 173.42 Total pore vol [cm3/g]: 0.074733 | [259] | |
Sugarcane | Bagasse | Technique: Simulation in ASPEN Gasification process divided in four steps: heating and drying, pyrolysis, gas–solid reactions, and gas phase reactions. Zero-dimensional and time independent reactions were considered. The model is considered in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is not necessary the use of reaction kinetics or hydrodynamics of the reactor. Gasification temperature [°C]: 100–1000Steam to biomass [wt/wt]: 0.3–1 | The higher the steam temperature, the higher the LHV [MJ/kg]: ~14.8 (100 °C); ~15.0 (600 °C); ~15.2 (1000 °C) The higher the air temperature, the higher the LHV [MJ/kg]:~14.55 (10 °C); ~15.0 (40 °C); ~15.3 (60 °C) The higher the gasification temperature, the higher the LHV [MJ/kg]: ~14.38 (600 °C); ~14.85 (600 °C); ~15.1 (1200 °C) Max LHV as a function of S/B between 0.5 and 0.6: ~15.05 Average LHV [MJ/kg]: 14.9 Syngas composition [%]: 45–40 (CO2); 31–35 (CO); 16–19 (CH4); 3–6 (H2); 0.3 (N2) Dry flue gas composition [%]: 69.24 (N2); 19.61 (CO2); 11.15 (H2O) | [260] |
Bagasse | Technique: Simulation (tri-generation system) The biomass was assumed free of ash, dry, N and S and comprising C, H and O. Biomasses are gasified into the gasifier using the waste heat of the Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine Operational temperature [°C]: 600 LHV [kJ/mole]: 467 Qin. Gasification [kW]: 2.33 | Syngas composition [%wt.]: 48.08 (H2); 18.86 (CO); 24.29 (CO2); 8.77 (CH4) Cold gas efficiency [%]: 73 Hydrogen efficiency [%]: 34 Exergy efficiency of gasifier [%]: 90 Exergy results [kW]: 3538 (biomass); 83.51 (steam); 1.536 (gasifier inlet heat); 3243 (syngas) | [261] | |
Eucalyptus | Wood | Reactor: Batch using NiFe2O4 as a catalyzer Operational temperature [°C]: 400, 450 and 500 Residence time [min]: 30, 40 and 60 Catalyst amount (Cat) [g]: 0, 1 and 2 Gasification agent: Super critical water (SCW) | Under same T, as increase the catalyst increase the GY Rx (450 °C, 30 min): best GY[wt.%]: 58.28 (1 g cat); best conversion[%]: 89.12 (2 g cat] Rx (450 °C, 40 min): best GY[wt.%]: 52.57 (1 g cat); best conversion[%]: 92.84 (2 g cat] Rx (450 °C, 60 min): best GY[wt.%]: 48.19 (1 g cat); best conversion[%]: 95.49 (2 g cat] Highest GY [wt.%]: 65.94 (60 min, 500 °C, 2 g cat) Highest H2 [mol%]: 22.69 (60 min, 450 °C, 2 g cat) HGE (60 min, 450 °C) [%]: 11.1 (0 g cat); 30.62 (2 g cat) CGE (60 min, 450 °C) [%]: 69.6 (0 g cat); 97.03 (2 g cat) | [248] |
Wood | Reactor: pilot scale bubbling fluidized bed Biomass flow rate (bfr) [kg/h]: 57.8 to 94 Bed reactor temperature [°C]: 700–900 Gasification agent: air | Highest H2 [mol%]: 14.7 (94 kg/h bfr, 764 °C) Highest cold gas efficiency [%]: 0.74 (64.5 kg/h bfr, 846 °C) Highest CGE [%]: 0.94 (kg/h bfr, 887 °C) Highest syngas LHV [MJ/m3): 5.9 (95.5 kg/h bfr, 795 °C) | [262] | |
Pinus | Wood | Technique: Aspen Plus simulation Operational temperature [°C]: 700, 750, 800, 850 and 900 Particle size [mesh]: 60, 80, 100 Steam-to-biomass mass (S/B): 0, 0.7, 1.4, 2.1 and 2.8 Gasification agent: Steam (200 °C) Biomass flow rate [g/min]: 3 | Syngas composition [%vol] at 900 °C: 100 mesh: 25.24 (CO); 32.74 (H2); 2.28 (CH4); 12.12 (CO2) 80 mesh: 52.83 (CO); 30.53 (H2); 1.95 (CH4); 14.69 (CO2). Best performance 60 mesh: 54.49 (CO); 25.89 (H2); 1.79 (CH4); 16.96 (CO2) Temperature effect at mesh 80 (700 to 900 °C): CO and CH4 decreases by 4.17% and 6.95%, respectively. H2 and CO2 increased by 5.43% and 5.69%, respectively. Optimal T [°C]: 850. S/B effect at mesh 80 and 850°C (0.7 to 2.8): CO and CH4 decreases by 19.52% and 1.9%, respectively. H2 and CO2 increased by 6.78% and 13.74%, respectively. Optimal S/B: 1.4 | [263] |
Wood (Brazil) | Reactor: downdraft gasifier and combustion engine coupled to a power generator. Not SteadyState entirely operation Particle size [cm]:1–2.5 | Syngas composition [%wt.]: 12.72 (H2); 24.78 (CO); 11.1 (CO2); 2.1 (CH4). LHV [MJ/kg]: 5.51 1 kg of produced gas requires about 0.64 kg of air. Average E/R: 0.26 Average Cold gas efficiency [%]: 69.4 (18% lower than manufacturer announcement) | [264] | |
Scenario V—Fast Pyrolysis (Substitutes for Fuel Oil) | ||||
Soybean | Hull (Brazil) | Reactor: fluidized bed reactor Reactor loaded with 800 g of inert material (sand) Temperature [°C]: 550 Velocity of the fluidizing gas (nitrogen) [cm/s]: 150 Biomass feeding rate [kg/h]: 40 | Average yield [%]: 45 (bio-oil); 33 (char); 22 (non-condensable gases). In the organic phase, the three main compounds identified in soybean hull bio-oil were: phenol (14.88%), 2-methylphenol (7.59%) and 4-methylphenol (12.55%). Bio-oil organic: 64.66 wt.% (C); 6.68 wt.% (H); 5.80 wt.% (N); 1.17 wt.% (S); 21.69 wt.% (O); 24.28 MJ/kg (HHV); 22.83 MJ/kg (LHV) Bio-oil aqueous: 13.31 wt.% (C); 2.15 wt.% (H); 3.01 wt.% (N); 0.42 wt.% (S); 81.11 wt.% (O); 6.89MJ/kg (HHV); 6.42 MJ/kg (LHV) | [265] |
Straw | Bubbling fluidized bed reactor Temperature [°C]: 500 | Average yield [%]: 67 (biooil); 28.5 (biochar); 4.25 (syngas) Bio-oil organic: 67.24 wt.% (C); 47.37 wt.% (H); 50.34 wt.% (O) | [266] | |
Rice | Husk (Brazil) | Reactor: Laboratory-scale fluidized bed with a SiC bed. Feed rates [g/L]: 875 Carrier gas to biomass ratio [wt/wt]: 0.8 Temperatures [°C]: 450, 525, and 600 SiC bed heights [cm]: 4.9 and 6.5 | Product yield: 43% (max liquid); 31% (organics); 12% (water); 32% (solids); 25% (gas and losses). | [267] |
Corn | Stalk (USA) | Temperature [°C]: 400–450 Acid pretreated and untreated corn stalks were pyrolyzed Feed rate [kg/h]: 1–2.5 | Average yield [%]: 35–46 (biooil); 20.4–29 (biochar); 4.4–32 (syngas) Elemental analysis untreated stalk bio-oil: 19.05% C, 9.31% H, 0.17% N, 71.46% remaining. Acid-treated stalk bio-oil: 24.88% C, 5.33% H, 0% N, 69.79% remaining | [268] |
Coffee | Husk (Brazil) | Biomass in [g]: 100 g Stirring rate [rpm]: 64 Heating rate [°C/min]: 20 T [°C]: 500 | Yield [%]: SY (26.2–28.7); LY (47.5–56.5); NCGY (18.6–24.8) Biochar composition [% db]: C (73.75 ± 0.5); H (1.99 ± 0.1); N (1.90 ± 0.2); O (6.00 ± 0.3) HHV biochar [MJ/kg]: 24.6 ± 0.28 LHV biochar [MJ/kg]: 23.16 ± 0.26 Proximate analysis biochar [wt.% db]: VM (9.5 ± 1.18); FC (73.5 ± 1.48); AC (17 ± 0.63) MC [wt.% wb]: 1.89 ± 0.14 Apparent density biochar [kg/m3]: 401 ± 6 Specific density biochar [kg/m3]: 770 ± 10 Porosity biochar [−]: 0.48 Moisture aqueous phase (at different temperature ranges) [%wb]: 82.05 ± 0.24 (25–200 °C); 77.22 ± 0.22 (200–250 °C); 61.09 ± 0.29 (250–300 °C); 55.31 ± 0.37 (300–350 °C); 29.55 ± 0.23(350–400 °C); 22.76 ± 0.22 (400–500 °C) HHV aqueous phase (at different temperature ranges) [MJ/kg]: 16.77 ± 0.45 (25–200 °C); 17.17 ± 0.40 (200–250 °C); 21.75 ± 0.33 (250–300 °C); 27.87 ± 0.38 (300–350 °C); 30.63 ± 0.42(350–400 °C); 33.51 ± 0.29 (400–500 °C) pH aqueous phase (at different temperature ranges) [−]: 3.63 ± 0.01 (25–200 °C); 4.12 ± 0.01 (200–250 °C); 4.74 ± 0.01 (250–300 °C); 6.44 ± 0.01 (300–350 °C); 7.87 ± 0.01 (350–400 °C); 8.19 ± 0.01 (400–500 °C) | [269] |
Banana | Leaves (India) | Technique: TGA curve analysis Particle size [µm]: 250 Heating rate [°C/min]: 10, 20, 30 Operational temperature [°C]: 22–900 | Heating rate [10]: Ti [°C]: 151.5; Tb [°C]: 493; Tm [°C]: 297 Max mass decomposition [μg/min]: 437 Heating rate [20]: Ti [°C]: 159; Tb [°C]: 499; Tm [°C]: 304 Max mass decomposition [μg/min]: 652 Heating rate [30]: Ti [°C]: 163; Tb [°C]: 506; Tm [°C]: 316 Max mass decomposition [μg/min]: 1131 | [270] |
Leaves (Brazil) | Reactor type: pilot-scale plant Fluidization agent: air Flow gas rate [Nm3/h]: 15 Operational temperature [°C]: 500 Biomass feed rate [kg/h]: 0.84 | Tm [°C]: 340 LY [wt.%]: 27; SY [wt.%]: 23.3; GY [wt.%]: 49.6 Bio-oil: two phases (light and heavy) Heavy oil composition [%]: 55.9 (CO2); 7.8 (H2); 0.87 (N2); 0.08 (S); 35.3 (O2). HHV [MJ/kg]: 25.0 Light oil composition [%]: 16.9 (CO2); 8.8 (H2); (N2); 0.01 (S); 74.3 (O2). HHV [MJ/kg]: 1.2 Biochar: Proximate analysis [wt.%]: 1.68 (MC); 53.2 (VM); 23.2 (FC); 23.5 (AC) Ultimate analysis [wt.%]: 48.0 (C); 3.2 (H); 1.2 (N); 0.33 (S)HHV [MJ/kg]: 18.2 Total process energy consumption: 5.58 kWh | [271] | |
Orange | Bagasse | Reactor type: Conical Spouted Bed Reactor. Residence time[min]: 50 min Specifications: Reactor, cyclone and filter are located in a hot box heated to 290 C to avoid condensation of heavy compounds. Particle size [µm]: 1000 Biomass flow rate [g.min−1]: 1 N2 flow rate [L.min−1]: 7 Operational temperature [°C]: 425, 500 and 600 | SY [wt%]: 33 (425 °C); 29 (500 °C); 27 (600 °C); LY [wt%]: 54.6 (425 °C); 54.9 (500 °C); 49 (600 °C) GY [wt%]: 12 (425 °C); 16 (500°); 24 (600 °C); Gas: Composition (vol%): Mainly CO2 and CO (45–80%); C1-C4, H2 and CH4 (detected but not specified). LHV [MJ.m−3]: 8.5 (600 °C). Bio-oil (500 °C): Composition [%wt]: Alcohols = 4.74; Ketone = 13.98; Furans = 21.47; Phenols = 1.71; Saccharides = 2.88; Nitrogenous compounds = 0.51; Hydrocarbons = 0.02; Unidentified = 7.2; Water = 40.81 Bio-char (600 °C): Composition [wt%]: C= 72.9; H= 2.6; N= 1.4; O= 12.2; Proximate analysis [wt%]: VM= 26.9; FC= 72.2; AC= 10.9. HHV [MJ/kg]: 27.5 Surface area [m2/g]: 4.8 Pore volume [m3/g]: 0.003 | [158] |
Bagasse | Reactor type: Pyrex glass semi-batch. Specifications: Ice cold water is feed directly to the straight condenser using a miniature submersible pump to condense the pyrolysis vapors into liquid. Three different batches were performed, varying final temperature, heat rate and gas flow rate. Particle size [µm]: 425 Biomass [g]: 30 Operational temperature [°C]: 350, 375, 400, 425, 450, 475, 500, 525, 550, 575 and 600 Heating rate [°C/min]: 25, 50, 75 and 100 N2 flow rate [L/min]: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 | Batch 1: highest pyrolysis oil yield of 28.04 wt% at 525 °C, heating rate of 25 °C/min and N2 gas flow rate of 0.1 L/min. T [350–600 °C]: SY [wt%]: 56.71–28.26; LY [wt%]: 16.38–26.20; GY [wt%]: 20.76–37.83 Mass loss [wt%]: 1.2–3.24 Pyrolysis-gas: H2/C molar ratio: 0.04; Flow rate [L/min]: 0.09; Volume [mL]: 2030; GCV [MJ/m3]: 5.19 Batch 2: highest pyrolysis oil yield of 34.03 wt% at 75 °C/min, constant temperature of 525 °C and N2 gas flow rate of 0.1 L/min Heating rate [25–100 °C/min]: SY [wt%]: 33.02–24.87; LY [wt%]: 28.04–33.62; GY [wt%]: 31.37–34.89 Mass loss [wt%]: 2.61–3.11 Pyrolysis-gas: H2/C molar ratio: 0.04; Flow rate [L/min]: 0.12; Volume [ml]: 2270; GCV [MJ/m3]: 5.47 Batch 3: highest pyrolysis oil yield of 35.53 wt% at N2 gas flow rate of 0.2 L/min at 525 °C and heating rate of 75 °C/min N2 flow rate [0.1–0.5 °C/min]: SY [wt%]: 22.66–22.37; LY [wt%]: 34.03–30.41; GY [wt%]: 31.90–39.58 Mass loss [wt%]: 2.94–4.96 Pyrolysis-gas: H2/C molar ratio: 0.04; Flow rate [L/min]: 0.15; Volume [mL]: 2360; GCV [MJ/m3]: 5.49 Bio-char: Composition [wt%]: C = 70.13; H = 4.26; N = 0.61; O = 24.97; S = 0.03; proximate analysis [wt%]: MC = 2.14; VM = 41.26; FC = 53.58; AC = 3.02. HHV [MJ/kg]: 27.67 Molecular weight [g/mol]: 13.13; Surface area [m2/g]: 23.17; Pore Volume [m3/g]: 1.52 × 10−5 Other elements [%wt]: Si = 1.01; Mn = 0.82; Fe = 0.36; Co = 0.05; Al = 78.76 Bio-oil: Composition [wt%]: C = 54.20; H = 5.99; N = 0.02; O = 39.75; S = 0.04; AC = 1.31 HHV [MJ/kg]: 21.72. Molecular weight [g/mol]: 22.79; Total Acid Number [mgKOH/mL]: 24.73; pH = 3.21; Water content [%wt] = 21.30; Kinematic viscosity [40 °C, cSt] = 23.58; Kinematic viscosity [100 °C, cSt] = 10.11; Density [gm/cc, 15 °C] = 0.98; Flash point [°C] = 71; Fire point [°C] = 91; IBP [°C] = 93; FBP [°C] = 321 | [102] | |
Coconut | Shell (China) | Reactors: microwave and fixed-bed reactor Catalyst (cat): Conventional ZSM-5 zeolites and ZSM-5 (25) @SBA-15 | LY [%]: 42 (ZSM-5), 68 (ZSM-5 (25)@SBA-15) Hydrocarbon yield [%]: 146 (ZSM-5), 200 (ZSM-5 (25)@SBA-15) The phenol selectivity was greater than 70% of the area, regardless of the catalyst. Microwave reactor enhanced the conversion of phenols to hydrocarbons For phenolic-rich bio-oil (14.3 wt.%) is recommended the combination of the fixed-bed reactor and core–shell hierarchical ZSM-5@SBA-15. For hydrocarbon-rich bio-oil (6 wt.%) is recommended the combination of microwave reactor and core–shell hierarchical ZSM-5@SBA-15. | [272] |
Shell (Iran) | Reactor type: fixed-bed reactor Particle size [µm]: <150 Heating rate [°C.min-1]: 100 Flow gas rate (Ar) [mL/min]: 30 Operational temperature [°C]: 500 Reaction time [min]: 30 | Tm [°C]: 333 LY [wt%]: 50.25; SY [wt%]: 29.0; GY [wt%]: 20.75 Gas product composition [vol%]: 58.0 (CO2); 18.5 (CO); 10.9 (H2); 9.9 (CH4); 2.7 (C2–C4) Gas product LHV [MJ/Nm3]: 8.85; H2/CO ratio [-]: 0.59 Bio-oil relative components concentration [%]: 23.5 (hydrocarbon); 6.1 (alcohol); 4.2 (acid); 35.3 (phenol); 10.7 (ketone); 7.1 (ester); 5 (ether); 3.5 (furfural) Biochar specific surface [m2/g]: 26.22 Av pore diameter [nm]: 9.35 Total pore vol [cm3/g]: 0.084 | [273] | |
Sugarcane | Bagasse | Type: reaction (semi batch reactor) Operational temperature [°C]: 500–700 Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 Particle size [mm]: 0.5 N2 flow rate [ml/min]: 200 | Best oil characteristics performance at 700 °C Density [kg/m3]: 988 Viscosity [cSt]: 9.4 Acid number [mg KO/g]: 44.7 pH: 3 Flash point [°C]: 130 Heating value [MJ/kg]: 4.3 Total phenol content [%]: 58.89 | [274] |
Bagasse | Type: reaction (semi batch reactor) Operational temperature [°C]: 350–650 Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 and 50 Particle size [mm]: <0.25–1.7 N2 flow rate [cm3/min] | Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 Ti [°C]: 160; Tb [°C]: 500; Tm [°C]: 311 (peak 1); 440 (peak 2); LY [wt.%]: 29.41 (350 °C); 42.29 (500 °C); 38.82 (650 °C) SY [wt.%]:49.45 (350 °C); 23.47 (650 °C) GY [wt.%]: 21.14 (350 °C); 37.71 (650 °C) Heating rate [°C/min]: 10 LY [wt.%]: 31.25 (350 °C); 45.23 (500 °C); 40.39 (650 °C) SY [wt.%]:47.41 (350 °C); 24.88 (650 °C) GY [wt.%]: 21.34 (350 °C); 34.73 (650 °C) Max LY[wt.%]:45.23 (500 °C, 50 °C/min); 45.03 (particle size 0.5 mm); 44.95 (N2 flow 100 cm3/min) Bio-oil composition [wt.%]: 65.64 (C); 26.67 (O); 6.97 (H); 0.96 (N); 0.03 (S) Bio-oil density [kg/m3]: 1039 Bio-oil kinetic viscosity [cSt, 40 °C]: 14.20 HHV [MJ/kg]: 27.75 | [275] | |
Eucalyptus | Wood | Microwave-assisted pyrolysis (for high nitrogen-containing compounds (NCCs)) Catalyst (cat): MoO3 Cat ratios (Wood/MoO3): 1/1, 2/1 and 3/1 Operational temperature [°C]: 550 | Raw wood yields [wt%]: LY: 34.12; SY: 23.78; GY: 42.1. HHV [MJ/kg]: 17.4. NCCs in bio-oil [%]: 7.81 (raw); 15.32 (1/1); Highest LY [wt%]: 41.66 (2/1) Highest GY [wt%]: 54.37 (1/1) | [276] |
Wood (Brazil) | Pilot scale: fluidized bed Biomass flow rate [kg/h]: 20 Poor O2 atmosphere Operational temperature [°C]: 500 Fluidization gas flow [Nm3/h]: 15 | SY [wt%]: 14. Composition [wt%]: 0.38 (N2), 67.18 (C), 3.86 (H2). HHV [MJ/kg]: 26.38 LY [wt%]: 53. Composition [wt%]: 0.17 (N2), 53.63 (C), 7.37 (H2). HHV [MJ/kg]: 22.39 Bio-oil properties: 30% heavy fraction and 22% light fraction. Sulfur content [mg.kg-1]: 85. Density (at 20) [kg/m3]: 1225.6. pH: 3.3. Water content [wt%]: 14.2 Volatile organic compounds [wt%]: 0.40 (methanol), 0.27 (ethanol), 0.04 (acetone), 11.22 (acetic acid), 0.01 (furfural) | [277] | |
Wood (Brazil) | Auto-thermal SDB-20 pilot-scale plant Feed rate [kg/h]: 15.06 Temperature [°C]: 480 ± 8 Fluidization agent: Air supplied by a blower at 13 Nm3/h, and recirculation gases, supplied by a fan at 7 Nm3/h. Quartz sand (Quartzo Brasil Minas 403/050) of 1300 kg/m3 | Heavy bio-oil energy yield of 30% and 21.4 MJ kg−1 lower heating value | [278] | |
Pinus | Wood | Reactor: fixed bed reactor Operational temperature [°C]: 500 Fluidization agent: N2, H2, CO2 and CH4 Biomass [g]: 5 Particle size [µm]: >125 Heat rate [°C·min−1]: 10 | Fluidization agents: CH4: Highest biomass conversion (76.90%). CO content of 93.58% H2: Promote non-condensable gases formation but lower LY CH4 and CO2: LY of 27.77 wt% N2: Max HHV of 22.62 MJ/kg | [279] |
Wood | Pilot scale. Thermomechanical pretreatment. Pretreatment: wood heated at 173 °C, for 3, 24, and 72 min, impregnated or not with acid citric (CA) solution 1.5 wt% Pyrolysis: Reactor: bubbling fluidized bed Biomass flow rate [kg/h]:0.4–0.7 Operational temperature [°C]: 450 | Raw wood yields [wt%]: LY: 54.70; SY: 17.18; GY: 19.18. HHV [MJ·kg−1]: 17.4 Highest LYs [wt%]: 60.56 (72 min, no CA), HHV [MJ/kg]: 18.6; 61.62 (3 min + CA), HHV [MJ/kg]: 18.1 highest HHV [MJ/kg]: 18.9 (24 min + CA) | [270] |
Agricultural Residues | Wood Residues | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Soybean | Corn | Sugarcane | Rice | Wheat | Coffee | Banana | Orange | Coconut | Eucalyptus | Pinus | |
Carbon content (Tg) | 84.8 | 6.0 | 163.7 | 7.8 | 4.1 | 0.4 | 8.3 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 74.3 | 16.9 |
Carbon sequestration (Tg-CO2) | 310.9 | 22.2 | 599.8 | 28.7 | 15.0 | 1.5 | 30.4 | 3.4 | 2.4 | 273 | 61.9 |
Scenario I—Bioethanol production | |||||||||||
Biothanol potential (v/w%) | 29.27 | 35.04 | 40.15 | 33.65 | 37.43 | 37.06 | 24.43 | 15.58 | 31.47 | 39.7 | 38.9 |
Ethanol (GL) | 56.01 | 4.74 | 143.69 | 5.91 | 3.59 | 0.33 | 5.25 | 0.34 | 0.39 | 60.0 | 13.9 |
Equivalent gasoline (GL) | 40.27 | 3.41 | 103.31 | 4.25 | 2.58 | 0.24 | 3.77 | 0.24 | 0.28 | 43.1 | 10.0 |
CO2 emission from biethanol production | 5.60 | 0.47 | 14.37 | 0.59 | 0.36 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 6.0 | 1.4 |
Carbon sequestration (Tg-CO2) | 85.37 | 7.23 | 219.02 | 9.01 | 5.47 | 0.51 | 8.00 | 0.52 | 0.59 | 91.4 | 21.1 |
Scenario II—biogas production | |||||||||||
Biogas potential (Gm3) | 105.2 | 7.6 | 226.4 | 9.0 | 5.8 | 0.6 | 12.4 | 4.8 | 0.8 | 91.6 | 21.6 |
Equivalent energy (PJ) | 2240.0 | 162.5 | 4821.9 | 191.9 | 122.6 | 11.8 | 264.3 | 102.3 | 18.0 | 1950 | 460 |
Carbon sequestration (Tg CO2-eq) | 136.6 | 9.9 | 294.1 | 11.7 | 7.5 | 0.7 | 16.1 | 6.2 | 1.1 | 119 | 28.1 |
Scenario III—Combustion | |||||||||||
Heat value (MJ/kg) | 16.9 | 17.2 | 16.3 | 16.6 | 14.6 | 16.9 | 15.5 | 15.5 | 17.8 | 17.8 | 17.8 |
Harvested Energy (PJ) | 3230.5 | 232.3 | 5814.9 | 290.7 | 140.0 | 15.1 | 333.8 | 33.6 | 21.8 | 2694 | 636 |
Equivalent Coal (Tg) | 125.7 | 9.0 | 226.3 | 11.3 | 5.4 | 0.6 | 13.0 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 105 | 24.7 |
Carbon sequestration (Tg CO2) | 289.1 | 20.8 | 520.4 | 26.0 | 12.5 | 1.4 | 29.9 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 241 | 56.9 |
Scenario IV—Gasification (ar) | |||||||||||
Heat value of gas (MJ/Nm3) | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.00 | 6.00 |
Harvested Energy (PJ) | 2295.9 | 162.5 | 4294.1 | 210.8 | 115.0 | 10.8 | 257.7 | 26.1 | 14.7 | 1813 | 428 |
Equivalent Natural gas (Nm3) | 62.1 | 4.4 | 116.1 | 5.7 | 3.1 | 0.3 | 7.0 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 49.0 | 11.6 |
Carbon sequestration (Tg) | 133.4 | 9.4 | 249.5 | 12.2 | 6.7 | 0.6 | 15.0 | 1.5 | 0.9 | 105 | 24.9 |
Scenario V—fast-pyrolysis (substitutes for fuel oil) | |||||||||||
Heat value of bio-oil (MJ/kg) | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 |
Harvested Energy (PJ) | 1913.3 | 135.4 | 3578.4 | 175.6 | 95.9 | 9.0 | 214.7 | 21.7 | 12.2 | 1511 | 357 |
Equivalent fuel oil (Tg) | 44.5 | 3.1 | 83.2 | 4.1 | 2.2 | 0.2 | 5.0 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 35.1 | 8.3 |
Carbon sequestration (Tg) (fuel oil) | 133.4 | 9.4 | 249.4 | 12.2 | 6.7 | 0.6 | 15.0 | 1.5 | 0.9 | 105 | 24.8 |
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Alves, E.P.R.; Salcedo-Puerto, O.; Nuncira, J.; Emebu, S.; Mendoza-Martinez, C. Renewable Energy Potential and CO2 Performance of Main Biomasses Used in Brazil. Energies 2023, 16, 3959. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093959
Alves EPR, Salcedo-Puerto O, Nuncira J, Emebu S, Mendoza-Martinez C. Renewable Energy Potential and CO2 Performance of Main Biomasses Used in Brazil. Energies. 2023; 16(9):3959. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093959
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlves, Elem Patricia Rocha, Orlando Salcedo-Puerto, Jesús Nuncira, Samuel Emebu, and Clara Mendoza-Martinez. 2023. "Renewable Energy Potential and CO2 Performance of Main Biomasses Used in Brazil" Energies 16, no. 9: 3959. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093959