Fuel Cell Products for Sustainable Transportation and Stationary Power Generation: Review on Market Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Hydrogen: History, Production, Utilization, and Safety
2.1. History of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies
2.2. Hydrogen Production Methods
2.3. Hydrogen Storage and Utilization
2.4. Safety Aspects of Hydrogen
3. Fuel Cells: Fundamentals and Applications
3.1. Fundamentals of Fuel Cells
3.2. Classification of Fuel Cells
3.3. Basic Components and Working of Fuel Cells
Some Design Challenges Associated with PEMFC Systems
3.4. Applications of Fuel Cells: Transportation Sector
3.5. Architecture of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
3.6. Components of FCEVs
3.7. Demonstrations of FCEVs in Transportation Sector
3.8. Applications of Fuel Cells: Stationary Sector
3.9. Ballard’s Technological Products (Fuel Cell Market and Products)
4. Technical Challenges and Market Drivers of Fuel Cell Energy Systems
4.1. Opportunities
4.2. Fuel Economy and Long Travel Range
4.3. Threats
4.4. Segmentation
4.5. Market Generation for Local Components and Analysis
4.6. Global Fuel Cell Shipments
4.7. Commitment and Deployment Status
4.8. Hydrogen Policies and Roadmaps towards Commercialization
4.8.1. Japan
4.8.2. The USA
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Energy Source | Potential (EJ) | Technical Possibility (TWh/yr) |
---|---|---|
Solar | * | |
Wind | ||
Hydro |
Feedstock | Energy to Process (kJ/mole) | Production (Mole of H2/Mole of Feed) | Emission (Ton of CO2/Ton of H2) |
---|---|---|---|
Natural gas | 42.0 | 4.0 | 10.0 |
Oil products | 50.0 | 2.7 | 12.0 |
Coal | 60.0 | 2.3 | 19.0 |
Water | 245.0 | 1.0 | - |
Fuel Cell Category | Electrolyte | Operating Temperature (°C) | Catalyst | Advantages | Weakness | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PEMFC | Polymer Electrolyte Membrane | 60–80 | Platinum | Quick startup Operation at room temperature Air as oxidant | Sensitive to CO Reactants need to be humidified | Vehicle power Portable power |
AFC | 35–85% wt. K-OH | 120–250 | Nickel/Silver | Quick startup Operation at room temperature | Needs pure O2 as oxidant | Aerospace Military |
PAFC | Phosphoric acid | 150–220 | Platinum | Insensitive to CO2 | Sensitive to CO Slow start | Distributed generation |
SOFC | Y2O3-stabilized ZrO2 | 650–1000 | LaMnO3/ LaCoO3 | Air as oxidant High energy efficiency | High operating temperature | Large distribution generation Portable power |
MCFC | Molten carbonate | 600–700 | Nickel | Air as oxidant High energy efficiency | High operating temperature | Large distribution generation |
Color Code | Name of the Component | Material Used | Function (s) |
---|---|---|---|
Anode and cathode collector plate (s) | Copper | Collect electrons and transfer across the circuit | |
Anode and cathode flow channel (s) | Graphite | Conduct electrons and provide passage for reactant gases | |
Gas Diffusion Electrode | Pt/C | Provide the surface for electrochemical reaction to occur (Catalyst layer-CL) Equidistribution of reactant gases across the active area (gas diffusion layer-GDL) | |
Membrane | Nafion | Conduct the protons |
Process Code | Name of the Process | Description |
---|---|---|
1 | Reactant gas flow | Hydrogen and oxygen are allowed to pass through the cell via gas flow channels |
2 | Reactant gas diffusion | These reactant gases diffuses through the GDL towards CL |
3 | Reactions at catalyst | At CL, the electrochemical splitting of hydrogen occurs at the anode and oxygen is held susceptible for completing the reaction at the cathode |
4 | Proton conduction | H+ ions cross the membrane and react with O2 |
5 | Electron conduction | Electrons are conducted through the ribs of the anode flow channels and connected via an external load to combine at the cathode |
6 | Water transport (through membrane) | Due to electro-osmotic drag and back diffusion, there is a tendency to transport water between the anode and cathode through the membrane |
7 | Water transport (across GDE) | Water formed as a result of the combination of H+, O2, e− constitutes this transport |
8 | Unused gas and water droplets | Unused gases and water droplets that fill the gas channels are usually purged out by the cathode gas itself |
9 | Heat transfer | The reaction is exothermic in nature and leads to building of temperature in these systems, hence proper cooling technology is essential to maintain system performance and prevent material failure |
Characteristic | Units | 2020 Target | Ultimate Target |
---|---|---|---|
Energy efficiency at 25% rated power | % | 65 | 70 |
Power density | W/L | 650 | 850 |
Specific power | W/kg | 650 | 650 |
Cost | $/kW | 40 | 30 |
Durability | hours | 5000 | 8000 |
Characteristic | Units | 2020 Targets |
---|---|---|
Energy efficiency at rated power | % | >45 |
Combined heat and power plant efficiency | % | 90 |
Transient response (10–90% load) | min | 2 |
Startup time (at 20 °C) | min | 20 |
Cost | $/kW | 1500 |
Durability | hours | 60,000 |
Name of the Product | Sector | Power | Benefit (s) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
FCGen H2PM | Backup power | 1 kW–60 kW | Minimal degradation | [66] |
FC Wave | Power generation and backup power | 200 kW–1.2 MW | >25,000 operating hours and 5.5 sq.m floor space | [67] |
Clear Gen II | Peak power for grid conditioning | 1 MW to multiple MWs | Certified as per EU and CSA standards & 40′ ISO container (<40,000 kg) | [68] |
Name of the Product | Type of Cooling | Sector | Power | Benefits | Applications | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FCgen-1020 ACS | Air | Backup power, Material Handling Equipment | 400 W–3.3 kW | Open-cathode stack, self-humidifying MEA | FC Gen-H2PM, electric lift | [69] |
FCgen HPS | Liquid | Motive power | Up to 140 kW | Can operate well in hot and freezing environments | Developed for Audi AG | [70] |
FCgen LCS | Liquid | Motive power | 2.3 kW–63.4 kW | Optimized cost, performance and reliability in automotive standards | Heavy-duty motive module FCmove | [71] |
FCvelocity-9SSL | Liquid | Motive power | 4 kW–21 kW | Establishes new standard of performance based on customer requirements | Integrated for transit in buses and rails | [72] |
Serial Number | Name of the Vehicle/Concept | Powertrain and Application | Vehicle/Concept |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Star bus fuel cell EV | India’s first fuel cell hydrogen bus | Vehicle |
2 | Prima E.55S | India’s first fuel cell hydrogen powered tractor | Concept |
3 | Prima H.55S | India’s first hydrogen ICE powered truck | Concept |
Year | Fuel Cell Units Shipped | Total Power of Corresponding Units |
---|---|---|
2016 | 62,000 | 500 MW |
2017 | 70,000+ | 670 MW |
2018 | 68,000 | 800 MW |
2019 | 70,000 | 1.1 + GW |
2020 | 75,000 | 1 GW |
2021 | 130,000+ | 2.3 GW |
Partner Nation | Status | Trucks | Buses | Forklifts | Cars | Refueling Stations | Electrolyzers | Stationary Systems |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia | Current | - | - | 1 | 197 | 5 | - | - |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | 30,000 MW by 2030 | - | |
Current | 5 | 25 | - | 60 | 8 | 10 MW | 9 MW | |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | 1 GW by 2030 | - | |
Brazil | Current | - | 1 FCH bus | - | - | 1 | - | - |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | 48 kW | - | |
Canada | Current | - | 1 | >400 | 17 | 9 | - | - |
Target | 2 | 500 (ZEV) | - | - | 33 by 2026 | - | 1 unit * | |
Chile | Current | - | - | - | - | - | 1 MW | - |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | 5 GW by 2025, 25 GW by 2030 | - | |
China | Current | - | - | 2 | 9287 (cars, trucks, buses) | 250 | - | 51 units |
Target | - | - | - | 50,000 by 2025 | - | 0.1–0.2 Mt/y by 2025 | - | |
Costa Rica | Current | - | 1 | - | 4 | - | ~100 kW | - |
Target | 10 | 1 | - | 10 | 1 | 1 MW by 2024 | - | |
European Commission | Current | 32 | 270 | 335 | 1325 | 193 | 37.6 MW | 3015 units |
Target | 150 in 2023 | 71 | 1 | 426 | 82 | 34.9 MW | 1222 units | |
France | Current | 1 | 33 | 322 | 589 | 50 | 13 MW | 149 units |
Target | - | 200 | - | 5000 | 100 | 6.5 GW by 2030 | - | |
Germany | Current | 20 | 70 | 128 | 1528 | 103 | 58 MW | 19,805 units |
Target | - | - | - | - | 400 by 2025 | 10 GW by 2030 | - | |
Iceland | Current | - | - | - | 22 | - | - | - |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
India | Current | - | 58 | - | - | 2 | - | - |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Italy | Current | - | 20 | - | 35 | 4 | - | 41 units |
Target | - | 1000 by 2025 | - | 25,000 by 2025 | - | - | - | |
Japan | Current | - | 120 | 397 | 7106 | 184 | - | 422,274 units |
Target | - | - | - | 200,000 by 2025 | 320 | - | - | |
Republic of Korea | Current | - | 129 | - | 19,270 | 170 | - | 767 MW |
Target | 30,000 by 2040 | 40,000 by 2040 | - | 5.26 Mil by 2050 | 2000+ by 2050 | - | 22.1 TWh in 2030 | |
Netherlands | Current | 29 | 41 | 0 | 491 | 7 | 4 MW | - |
Target | 3500 by 2025 | 300 by 2025 | - | 15,000 by 2025 | 50 by 2025 | 500 MW by 2025 | - | |
Norway | Current | 4 | - | - | 201 | 6 | - | - |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Republic of South Africa | Current | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | - | 311 units |
Target | - | 500 buses and trucks | 20 by 2025 | - | - | - | - | |
Switzerland | Current | 47 | - | 1 | 180 | 6 | - | 15 units |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
United Arab Emirates | Current | No information, they joined the consortium in 2022–23, the steering committee meeting in 2023–24 will add this data. | ||||||
Target | ||||||||
United Kingdom | Current | 36 | 58 | - | 353 | 26 | - | - |
Target | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
United States of America | Current | 5 | 70 | >50,000 | >13,000 | 50 | 172 MW | >550 MW |
Target | - | - | - | 1,00,000 (CA) | 1000 (CA) | - | - |
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Visvanathan, V.K.; Palaniswamy, K.; Ponnaiyan, D.; Chandran, M.; Kumaresan, T.; Ramasamy, J.; Sundaram, S. Fuel Cell Products for Sustainable Transportation and Stationary Power Generation: Review on Market Perspective. Energies 2023, 16, 2748. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062748
Visvanathan VK, Palaniswamy K, Ponnaiyan D, Chandran M, Kumaresan T, Ramasamy J, Sundaram S. Fuel Cell Products for Sustainable Transportation and Stationary Power Generation: Review on Market Perspective. Energies. 2023; 16(6):2748. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062748
Chicago/Turabian StyleVisvanathan, Vijai Kaarthi, Karthikeyan Palaniswamy, Dineshkumar Ponnaiyan, Mathan Chandran, Thanarajan Kumaresan, Jegathishkumar Ramasamy, and Senthilarasu Sundaram. 2023. "Fuel Cell Products for Sustainable Transportation and Stationary Power Generation: Review on Market Perspective" Energies 16, no. 6: 2748. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062748