A Survey on Energy Storage: Techniques and Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The share of renewable energies in the production of electrical energy will increase sharply to meet the objectives of reducing greenhouse gas emissions (mainly water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (or N2O), and ozone (O3), whose increased concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere are considered to constitute the major cause of global warming). Among these renewable energies, wind and solar are intermittent; hydro, geothermal, and biomass can provide production on demand in most cases [16,17].
2. Issues and Objectives
- Network Managers:
- The existing infrastructure should be maximally harnessed, and the investments needed to strengthen the networks should be postponed until the latest possible verification: A network of electrical distribution has many sources and recipients. An ideal network must adhere to a number of requirements, including minimizing ohmic losses, lowering building costs, and providing recipients the power they require even in the case of a partial anomaly in the network. The optimization of existing infrastructures to develop their networks, increase their lifespan, lower their costs, and limit their environmental impacts are the main priorities in this regard.
- Intermittent energy production must be incorporated while ensuring that users are receiving a stable supply of electricity: The states of intermittent energy sources can vary greatly and rapidly; in a few minutes, the production of a wind or solar farm can be transformed from operating at maximal levels to producing almost no power. Note that on this level, wind power is more erratic than solar power. Critics of renewables blame intermittency for energy wastage, wearing out grids more rapidly (which increases maintenance costs), and, overall, being too complex to manage. It is in this context that the question of storage in the modern day generates new interest as an additional tool given to operators to manage production.
- The balance between supply and demand must be secured by optimizing peak and demand response capacities: Electricity, for the moment, is characterized by the particularity of being unable to be stored in large quantities economically; thus, the quantity of electricity produced and injected into the network must be equal at all times to the quantity of electricity consumed. Otherwise, local imbalances can be created and spread to an entire electrical grid, resulting in widespread blackouts that would be extremely disruptive and costly for a country’s economy.
- For Producers with Intermittent Installations:
- Optimize the sizing of installations by coupling intermittent production and energy storage: An increase in energy storage capacity is required to accommodate the growth of renewable energies (solar and wind), whose production is unpredictable and decentralized. However, there are still several economic, legal, and technical barriers preventing the widespread use of novel storage systems. This is why considerable research efforts are being undertaken globally.
- Use storage as an arbitrage tool in the energy markets and hedge against medium and long-term economic risks: A severe economic catastrophe is being brought about by the scarcity of gas and electricity and their astronomical costs. Businesses are struggling to pay their bills, and worldwide power outages pose a threat to everyone’s health and safety. In the affected neighbourhoods, power outages also mean that traffic lights at intersections, elevators in buildings, heating, computers, and telephones will not operate. Trains are also stopped, as are schools and companies that depend on electricity to run their machines. In other words, this situation constitutes a large, unpredictable mess.
- Industrial Consumers:
- Electricity supply should be conserved in quantitative and qualitative terms: The foundation of the economy is the manufacturing sector. It consumes raw materials and energy to change them into compounds and goods. In addition to the indirect advantages of producing goods for human comfort, companies use a great deal of energy. Thus, the trends in energy consumption in the industry also significantly influence trends in overall energy consumption. Manufacturers are aware of the installations’ inefficiency, but they are unsure of how to start and what steps to take to improve their overall situation.
- Electrical energy storage must be integrated into activities and processes to generate load-shedding revenues: Solutions conducive to the achievement of energy intelligence are required to improve the energy characteristics of businesses. The contextualization of these data with organizational and production models is possible. For judgments to be made regarding energy use, these data are more valuable and more pertinent. To increase productivity and profitability, businesses need to determine the expenses associated with producing each product and alter their production accordingly.
- Territories:
- Integrate energy storage as a component of a renewable energy development strategy: One of the essential elements of the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources such as solar and wind is energy storage. With the help of a reserve that fills up during periods of high output and empties during periods of low production, these renewables’ fluctuations can be compensated. Globalizing energy storage also increases the prevalence of self-consumption scenarios, in which a home or community directly stores and uses the energy it generates.
- Secure a territory’s energy supply and reduce its dependence: The energy independence of a country or territory refers to its ability to meet all its energy needs without relying on imports in the form of primary sources or final energy. For many nations, renewable energy sources and their storage are the only options that are likely to progressively wean such nations off their reliance on foreign energy sources.
3. Why and How Should Energy Be Stored?
3.1. Selection Criteria for Storage Techniques
3.1.1. Technical Criteria
- Available power and energy capacity. Combining these two criteria facilitates the definition of the energy/power ratio corresponding to the possible discharge time, which is often characteristic of a particular application.
- The reaction time is an indicator of the reactivity of the storage medium. Occasionally, it is preferable to define the speed of the rise and fall under load, which characterizes the reactive behaviour of the system more comprehensively.
- Efficiency, which is the ratio between stored and restored energy (expressed as MWh-OUT/MWh-IN).
- Lifespan is sometimes preferable to define in terms of the number of charge/discharge cycles admissible for technologies such as batteries.
- For other uses, other criteria must be considered, such as energy density (in MWh/kg or MWh/m3) for mobility.
3.1.2. Economic and Societal Criteria
- Investment and operating costs.
- Performance and environmental constraints.
- Geographical location and losses induced by transport.
3.1.3. Maturity Level
3.2. Energy Storage Approaches
3.2.1. Mechanical Storage of Electricity
Pumped Energy Transfer Stations
Flywheels
Compressed Air
- The heating of gas during compression. Currently, thermal storage systems are being developed to recover heat (adiabatic storage).
- The number of sites (caves, old mines, etc.) for which good sealing performance is necessary versus the existing natural gas storage facilities.
3.2.2. Thermal Solutions
- Thermal inertia (sand, concrete, ceramics, etc.);
- The ability to withstand very high temperatures.
3.2.3. Supercapacitor-Based Energy Storage
3.2.4. Hydrogen Storage
3.2.5. Electrochemical Energy Storage
4. Batteries
4.1. Uses of Batteries
- Home Battery Use: Many household appliances depend on batteries; for instance, disposable batteries power items such as torches and remote controls. Rechargeable batteries, such as alkaline batteries, are used in various devices, including mobile phones, handheld video game consoles, digital cameras, and many more. Modern batteries such as lithium batteries power excessively power-hungry appliances such as computers and other gadgets.
- Battery Use in Medical Devices: Batteries are used in various forms of medical equipment. Such battery-operated devices include artificial limbs, insulin pumps, hearing aids, and valve support devices. Electronic gadgets such as real-time appliance clocks and photographic light meters also benefit from the use of mercury batteries.
- Battery Use in the Medical Industry: Batteries are utilized extensively in the medical industry. The battery-operated electrocardiogram (ECG) heart monitor may move with the patient and is always on to display the patient’s vital signs. Hospitals typically use rechargeable batteries such as lithium-ion and nickel–cadmium batteries.
- Battery Applications in Construction and Logistics: Heavy-duty batteries are used to power machinery such as forklifts because combustion, which produces carbon monoxide and exhaust fumes, can be hazardous in small areas. Lead–acid batteries are the type of batteries used in autos.
- Battery Use in Emergency Response and Firefighting: Radios that are essential for emergency response require batteries. These radios cannot store oversized charges without hefty batteries. ECGs, lamps, and even metal and fire detectors utilize batteries. These tools save lives daily.
- The Use of Batteries in Military Operations: High-energy and power-density-batteries are frequently used in military activities. Radios, which are used for communication, consume batteries. Batteries are used to power various field devices, including infrared goggles. While silver oxide batteries are utilized in missiles and submarines, lithium batteries have a significantly longer lifespan for electronic equipment.
- Using Batteries in Vehicles: Electric vehicle batteries (EVs) are extensively utilized in automobiles. This type of battery powers the electric motors in electric vehicles. Batteries for electric cars are frequently rechargeable. Lithium-ion batteries are usually used in electric vehicles.
- Using Batteries in Wearable Electronic Devices: Sensory, communication, and digital entertainment functions can be applied to clothing and accessories. There are various typical examples, including smart watches, smart glasses, smart clothing, heart rate monitors, fitness trackers, and so on [107].
4.2. Different Types of Batteries
4.3. Batteries for Electricity Storage
4.4. Environmental Impact of Batteries
4.5. Battery Management System (BMS)
5. Discussion
- Environmental gain linked to the possibilities of the large-scale deployment of intermittent energies;
- The ability to provide and adapt centralized or decentralized responses on a case-by-case basis for local or global constraints;
- The achievement of economic, political, and environmental Independence from fossil resources.
- For WWTPs, the optimization of pump turbines and infrastructures (the limitation of corrosion by salt water, the assessment of sites and environmental impacts, etc.).
- For the CAES, the improvement of the compression systems under high pressures and high temperatures, as well as the improvement of the mechanical strength and conductivity of the materials used for the exchangers.
- For chemical processes, more efficient materials and chemical compounds, particularly with respect to thermic and manufacturing-related implementation, and management processes likely to increase the lifespan, autonomy, and recycling of the system.
- For heat storage, materials that increase service life and improve yields are required. A reduction in bulk volumes is also sought.
- For hydrogen storage, the development of new concepts and new materials offers maximum safety at an acceptable cost.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Ref. | Contributions | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
2022 | [38] | This review critically examines energy storage systems’ evolution, classification, operating principles, and comparison from 1850 to 2022. | The article is quite long (51 pages and 566 references). |
2022 | [39] | This study focuses on the integration of energy storage systems for microgrid applications, providing an analysis of issues, control techniques, challenges, solutions, applications, etc. | In this research, the authors focused solely on the integration of energy storage systems for use in microgrids. |
2022 | [40] | This study reviews thermal energy storage applications such as heat recovery from waste and the cooling of heavy electronic equipment. The study demonstrates that thermal energy can be used for heating and cooling and has enormous potential with respect to new technologies and strategies. | This paper is limited to the study of thermal energy storage applications. |
2021 | [41] | Battery-based energy storage systems are thoroughly reviewed in this study with regard to their optimal sizing goals, system constraints, different optimization models, and methodologies. | This paper is limited to the study of battery-based energy storage systems. |
2021 | [42] | In this work, the authors conduct a literature assessment and propose an organizational plan for utility-scale hybrid systems that generate electricity solely from commercially accessible renewable energy technology. | The scope of this research is restricted to the study of renewable-energy-based hybrid systems. |
2020 | [43] | This paper may help decision-makers and practitioners choose the latest and most innovative energy storage technologies and systems for grids, machinery, and portable devices. | Some issues and objectives raised by numerous stakeholders are not covered. |
2020 | [44] | This study examines the current advancements in the exploitation of mechanical energy storage devices linked with wind and solar energies. | This paper is limited to the study of mechanical energy storage systems. |
2020 | [45] | This paper provides a thorough examination of the key elements required to comprehend the use of quick response storage technology for frequency regulation services. Additionally, it addresses the shortcomings and restrictions in the state-of-the-art techniques based on real-world experiences. | This research focuses solely on the analysis of quick response energy storage technologies for frequency regulation in contemporary power systems. |
2020 | [46] | In this review, natural carbon sources used to synthesize graphene and carbon products/derivatives for supercapacitors with good electrochemical performance are discussed. The review also covers the latest synthetic methods applied to such materials and their use as electrodes in supercapacitors. | This article focuses exclusively on supercapacitors as energy storage devices and how they use natural carbon resources as their electrode materials. |
2020 | [47] | This study reviews some recent advancements in railway energy storage systems (ESSs) and presents a thorough comparison of several ESSs. The main functions of the railway ESSs are discussed together with potential solutions from the academic community and current railway industry practices. | The objective of this review paper is restricted to the study of energy storage devices that are used in electrified railway systems. |
2020 | [48] | In this work, a comprehensive evaluation of the existing literature on electric vehicle (EV) power conversion topologies and energy storage systems is presented, along with problems, possibilities, and prospects based on a systematic classification of EVs and energy storage. | The scope of this review paper is limited to the investigation of several power conversion topologies and energy storage systems for electric vehicles. |
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Krichen, M.; Basheer, Y.; Qaisar, S.M.; Waqar, A. A Survey on Energy Storage: Techniques and Challenges. Energies 2023, 16, 2271. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052271
Krichen M, Basheer Y, Qaisar SM, Waqar A. A Survey on Energy Storage: Techniques and Challenges. Energies. 2023; 16(5):2271. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052271
Chicago/Turabian StyleKrichen, Moez, Yasir Basheer, Saeed Mian Qaisar, and Asad Waqar. 2023. "A Survey on Energy Storage: Techniques and Challenges" Energies 16, no. 5: 2271. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052271
APA StyleKrichen, M., Basheer, Y., Qaisar, S. M., & Waqar, A. (2023). A Survey on Energy Storage: Techniques and Challenges. Energies, 16(5), 2271. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052271