Policy Analysis of the Challenges to an Effective Switch to Low-Carbon Energy in the Economic Community of West African States

Abstract

In Africa, switching to renewable energy sources with low carbon emissions is becoming more popular. In the Economic Community of West African states (ECOWAS), the low-carbon energy transition must overcome significant obstacles, including those posed by policies put in place and their implementation. In order to replace the current fossil fuel-driven economy with low-carbon development that also advances the regional aims and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), this paper analyzes the current policy landscape in the region. A total of 75 policies from four categories (energy access, energy efficiency, renewable energy, climate change) were chosen for the policy review. Multicriteria decision analysis and a thorough review of the literature have shed light on how well the policies of the ECOWAS countries could promote low-carbon development and what the main challenges to overcome are. The last step was the comparison of the progress of the two key policies in the region: the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) and National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP). The results illustrate the amount of work still needing to be done in the region, with only 26 of the 75 policies receiving a score above 50. However, the prospect of a better energy strategy that adequately considers the difficulties of the energy transition is possible, given the progress made by the region’s nations since the creation of national action plans for energy efficiency (EE) and renewable energy (RE). Our analysis has also shown that countries like Senegal have obtained quite promising results, as evidenced by the best scores of 76.88 and 73.25, respectively, obtained by its NREAP and NEEAP policies.

1. Introduction

The Paris Climate Agreement and the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have set the world on a fast track to reaching the sustainability goals in 2015. In three decades, the world’s energy situation will be completely different from what it is today. As the standard of living has improved, more equipment and services powered by various energy sources are being used. Alongside this variety, a sizable worldwide movement is under way to hasten the economy’s decarbonization while guaranteeing that no one is left behind, in keeping with SDG 7. Nations must raise their aims if they are to stay on course and fulfill the objectives of the Paris Agreement. A start in that direction has been made with the introduction of the European Green Deal, which places equal emphasis on external collaboration with neighboring areas as it does on Europe. This creates new growth prospects for areas with a strong potential for renewable energy, such as Africa [1].

The region of sub-Saharan Africa is faced with a number of difficulties, including two-thirds of the world’s population living in extreme poverty, a declining economy as a result of falling commodity prices and the COVID-19 pandemic, widespread energy poverty, and climate variability that is upsetting agrarian livelihoods and igniting conflict over natural resources [2]. Low-carbon energy techniques ought to be prioritized in the energy plans of African nations. The issue of tackling poverty reduction, the development needs of African nations, and the threat of climate change all while implementing a significant energy transition persists, though. Given the isolation of rural populations, the task is particularly formidable for rural areas in Africa. This necessitates a careful evaluation of technical requirements, innovations in finance and institutional development, and the creation of suitable policy instruments [3]. Research on the gradual transition to a 100% renewable energy (RE) system on national regimes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has shown to be the optimum choice in the three areas of sustainability (economic, social, and environmental) [4]. Africa has the chance to exploit its enormous and mostly unrealized potential for renewable energy to advance the energy industry, particularly at the local level. This will facilitate the transition to a green economy, which will in turn create possibilities for green jobs, alleviate poverty, and support the creation of a low-carbon economy, as well as reduce dependence on increasingly expensive fossil fuels and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [5]. As it tries to integrate environmental factors into social and economic growth, the idea of sustainable development can be considered as representing a significant departure from earlier development models [6]. If the worst effects of climate change are to be avoided, a transition towards low-carbon, renewable energy sources are essential. Africa must nevertheless contribute to the transition to a healthy, green economy, even though its share of historical carbon emissions has been relatively minor. Additionally, renewable energy sources could help address the reach and dependability issues with the current energy infrastructure in Africa while also encouraging more extensive innovation and green jobs [7].

One of the important elements for achieving the objectives of the low-carbon transition is also energy policy. Energy policy is vital for the support of developing countries’ transition to low-carbon energy systems [8]. Our study aimed to understand the implications of ECOWAS countries’ energy efficiency and renewable energy for a low-carbon society in the area, as well as to identify the essential elements of ECOWAS’s energy policy that have an impact on the low-carbon energy transition. By creating standards for measuring policy effectiveness, determining levels of implementation success and impact on ECOWAS’s low-carbon development, our work identify challenges and impediments to boosting renewable energy and energy efficiency and reducing emissions in the ECOWAS region.

After this introduction, the paper unfolds in six chapters. Section 2 presents the literature review. Section 3 introduces the research methodology. Section 4 summarizes the main results. Section 5 discusses findings and policy implications as well as contributions and future research. Finally, Section 6 is the conclusion and recommendations.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Overview of the ECOWAS

Aiming to “promote cooperation and integration leading to the establishment of an economic union in West Africa in order to raise the living standards of its peoples, to maintain and enhance economic stability, foster relationships among Member States and contribute to the progress and development of the African continent,” the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was created on 28 May 1975 by the Treaty of Lagos. The development environment has undergone significant changes over the past 10 years on a continental and global scale, which have had a significant impact on the dynamics of the integration process in western Africa. The ratification of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Addis Ababa Action Agenda on finance for development, in addition to the adoption of the African Union’s Agenda 2063, represent a significant shift in the development priorities of ECOWAS Member States. In addition, the ECOWAS countries consider the Paris Climate Agreement, which was adopted in 2015 to protect the planet from the harmful effects of climate change, to be major priorities [9]. There are 15 countries, as shown in Figure 1, that make up the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), all of which are found in western Africa. These nations are linked geographically and culturally, and they also have common economic interests.

2.2. ECOWAS’s Energy System Context

When the members of ECOWAS added 93 items to the regional agreement in 1993, energy in general and renewable energy in particular were included. Energy is mentioned 19 times in the 1993 revisions. “Harmonization and coordination of national policies and the development of integration programmes, projects, and activities” are required in 19 issue areas, according to Article 3’s Aims and Goals. Energy and other things related to it are listed separately. Article 28 is devoted to energy, urging members to ensure efficient development of energy resources, coordinate efforts to ensure a consistent supply of hydrocarbons, “promote the development of new and renewable energy particularly solar energy in the framework of the policy of diversification of sources of energy,” harmonize energy development plans, especially for interconnected electricity grids, and cooperate on energy [10]. The vast majority of people, particularly in the ECOWAS region, continue to live in poverty. Expanding access to modern energy services is a huge challenge in western Africa. Analysis of the ECOWAS region’s electrification rate reveals significant gaps in rural electrification. The development of decentralized energy systems for rural areas is greatly facilitated by the development of renewable energy technology. The technical and nontechnical losses in the ECOWAS region’s grid networks present another difficulty. While estimated average losses across the region range from 21.5% to 25%, national rates of electricity loss vary by Member State and range from 15% to 50% [11].

Both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources, such as hydro, solar, biomass, geothermal, wind, coal, natural gas, and crude oil, are abundant in several ECOWAS nations. However, a sizable portion of the region is adversely affected by a significant mismatch between energy production and demand [12]. One of the major industries named in the ECOWAS treaty as a priority for accomplishing the community’s development goals is energy. The ECOWAS nations have had difficulty building a strong energy sector. However, the region has made significant progress in addressing its energy issues, which have proven to be one of the biggest roadblocks to equitable development and sustainable economic growth. The governments of ECOWAS member states created clean energy policies and programs after realizing how crucial it was to create a climate that encouraged investment in the sustainable energy industry [13].

The ECOWAS area, a western subregion of Africa with fifteen Member States and more than 335 million people in 2018, is committed to fostering an environment for the production of clean and contemporary energy. Better services are provided by an up-to-date, effective energy system, which boosts economic growth and lowers pollution. As a result, in recent years, western African nations have chosen development strategies that place a high priority on the modernization of their energy infrastructure with the aim of resolving the severe energy crisis, creating the necessary legal frameworks for the use of RE, and enhancing regional cooperation in the energy industry. Through the use of less traditional energy, these measures encourage the use of renewable resources [14].

Oyewo et al. [15] created scenarios that examined the effects of different policy restraints, including the cost of greenhouse gas emissions and cross-border electricity commerce. In the best policy scenarios for 2050, solar PV emerges as the key energy source for western Africa, meeting between 81% and 85% of the region’s electricity needs. According to the results of the optimization, a totally renewable energy-based power system is the most affordable, least-GHG-emitting, and job-rich choice for western Africa.

Ackah et al. [16] examined the renewable governance systems in western Africa and the European Union (EU) based on a desk review. The study demonstrates that although western Africa has the potential for renewable energy sources and certain national energy governance mechanisms, private sector investment is little. Their results show that despite the fact that regional and subregional measures have been put in place to address some of these issues, more can still be done, and contrary to the EU, the majority of subregional and regional targets do not appear to be necessary, and there are few economic tools to attract the private sector.

Löhr et al. [17] contribute to a more informed policy-making process toward a more equitable transition to the hydrogen economy by using historical analysis of previous energy initiatives. They conducted a comprehensive literature analysis to find pertinent conflict elements that may affect how initiatives to transition to hydrogen energy are carried out in a few Economic Community of West African States nations, including Nigeria and Mali. They concluded that policymakers must not only support technical development, access, and market frameworks for hydrogen energy policies but also concentrate on energy availability to impacted populations in order to better address potential difficulties.

3. Methodology

3.1. Overview of the Methodology

This study’s approach was based on a review of energy policy, analysis of the policies using a multicriteria decision-making process, and comparison, as shown in Figure 2. The first stage (Stage 1) was to collect and aggregate data for subsequent policy analysis, which was done during the energy policy review. First, a detailed evaluation of ECOWAS’s policies and target status was conducted. The widely used approach of systematic review was used to provide insight from current resources of ECOWAS’s energy condition in order to develop a credible, dependable, and legitimate review. The second stage (Stage 2) is the policy analysis with multicriteria decision-making. The third and last stage (Stage 3) is the comparison of the progress of the two key policies in renewable energy and energy efficiency—the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) and National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP)—in the region.

Google Scholar, Science Direct, Research Gate, and other search engines were used to discover sources and also reliable data and information to select the 75 policies of the 15 ECOWAS Member States, as well as local, regional and international official organization websites, such as the ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREEE), World Bank, International Energy Agency (IEA), and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). On the basis of the scientific literature, journal articles, laws, executive orders, presidential decrees, official energy sector websites, research platforms, a study of important documentation was carried out when analyzing the selected policies.

3.2. Review of Energy Policy (Stage 1)

Reviewing and assessing the energy policies of the ECOWAS region was the first stage in our process, during which time information was acquired and compiled for additional policy study. The energy of ECOWAS was first thoroughly analyzed. To create a credible, trustworthy, and authentic review, information about ECOWAS’s energy status was gathered from existing resources using the widely utilized method of systematic review. Four category groups (energy access, renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change) for choosing policies were identified by looking at the ECOWAS energy system, the numerous effects on the region’s energy policy, and the actual energy transition in the region.

3.3. Multicriteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) (Stage 2)

MCDA uses the following steps based on the framework provided by [18].

3.3.1. Energy Policies Suited for Analysis

The evaluation choices were the pertinent energy policies that had been reviewed and examined for each of the subregional space’s member nations. There were 75 policies, laws, mechanisms and regulations altogether in the options, which were put into effect between 2003 and 2020.

3.3.2. Criteria Selection

The criteria were identified from the review of the literature with a view to the relevant analysis of the selected policies. When taking into account the criteria, the objective to be reflected in each option was effectiveness to measure implementation and resulting impact energy-related policies in the ECOWAS context. Six criteria were selected. Criteria act as pillars, which guide the level of implementation and results. Here are the criteria selected:

• Criterion 1 (C1): Ability to measure impact of each policy

Explains how to access qualitative or quantitative advancement on a policy that has been put into effect.

• Criterion 2 (C2): Relevance to achieve the national targets and the ECOWAS target in terms of energy efficiency

Contributes to the NDC aims and ECOWAS regional targets for energy efficiency, such as NEEAP and SDGs.

• Criterion 3 (C3): Relevance to increase renewable energy techniques and achieve the goals set by the ECOWAS renewable energy policy and SDGs

Helps to achieve the goals set by the ECOWAS policies, such as NREAP.

• Criterion 4 (C4): Private sector/international cooperation investment

Contribution of private investment in policy execution.

• Criterion 5 (C5): Outcomes set by each country to achieve the regional energy targets

Outcomes set by government and time frame to achieve the ECOWAS Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREEE) targets.

• Criterion 6 (C6): Simplicity of policy application

The ease of implementation and its influence on the impact of each policy on the country and region.

3.3.3. Scoring Scale for Policy Analysis

Each policy was assessed against the criteria using a scoring system of one (low) to four (high), as indicated in Figure 3, in order to gauge the advancement of each criterion for the pertinent policy. For all criteria, the “high” value was the ideal option.

3.3.4. Criterion Weights

We assigned weights to each of the criteria to show how important they are to the choice. The relative importance of each criterion to the choice is indicated by a weighting in addition to a score. The criteria were selected from the literature review to inform the direction of our analysis. In considering the criteria, the objective to be reflected in each option was effectiveness in measuring the implementation and resulting impact of the energy policies in the ECOWAS context. The weights were assigned on the basis of a total allocation of 100%. In Figure 4, the breakdown is shown. Criteria 2 and 3 were given a slightly higher weighting than the other criteria (25%), as increased achievement of national and ECOWAS energy efficiency and renewable energy technology targets, as well as achievement of ECOWAS renewable energy policy targets, should drive the transition factors to effective policy mechanisms. Criterion 6 was weighted at 20% because successful implementation is important for progress and transition. The other three criteria (1, 4, and 5) were each given a 10% weighting. The total value is calculated by adding the weights and scores for each option. Then, based on the weight and score given to each policy, an overall value is awarded to each one.

3.3.5. Examination of Results

Finally, we employed a weighted sum approach to combine weights and scoring into an overall value score taking into account all outcomes. The outcomes were assessed based on computed total scores and subjective data obtained throughout the review process.

3.4. Comparison of Energy Policies: Case Study of National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) and National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) (Stage 3)

The comparison of energy efficiency and renewable energy policies was supported by the results of multicriteria decision analysis. A comparison of the regional action plans in the two sectors was done because energy efficiency and renewable energy sources are two key factors to successfully transition to a low-carbon economy in the ECOWAS region. Based on the results of the multicriteria decision analysis used, this small comparison will allow us to see the countries of the region whose policies have obtained the best progress score for the NREAP and NEEAP.

4. Results

4.1. Key Matters of the ECOWAS Energy Policy

Review of the ECOWAS’s energy situation helps us to examine four key matters: energy access, energy efficiency, renewable energy and climate change.

4.1.1. Energy Access

The ECOWAS nations have acknowledged the significance of having access to energy services, particularly to address the requirements of women, the underprivileged, and residents of rural and peri-urban areas. The ECOWAS UEMOA (West African Economic and Monetary Union) heads of state adopted the “White Paper for a Regional Policy for Increasing Access to Energy Services for Populations in Rural and Peri-Urban Areas in Order to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals” as a result of a procedure that was started at the first meeting of the Regional Multisector Group. The White Paper sets the following challenging quantitative goals for access to electricity, mechanical power for productive activities, and contemporary cooking fuel:

• 100% of the rural population will have access to a modern cooking fuel;
• 60% will have access to productive energy services in rural villages, especially mechanical power to increase the productivity of economic activities;
• 66% will have access to a personal electricity supply; 60% will live in areas with modernized basic social services, such as health care, drinking water, communications, lighting, etc., and access to lighting, audiovisual and telecommunications service, among other things [19].

4.1.2. Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency and conservation have long been important topics in the discussion of energy policy, and as worries about the global climate and energy security have grown, their significance has increased. Many advocates and decision-makers believe that reducing energy demand is crucial for overcoming these obstacles, and studies typically show that doing so can be an affordable way to deal with these issues [20]. ECOWAS regional and national energy policies must include energy efficiency. The goal of EE actions is to release 2000 MW of power-producing capacity, which will lessen the need for additional investments in power generation and negate the harmful environmental effects of current energy practices. To encourage a healthy environment and hold member states accountable, specific EE goals have been established in each NEEAP in accordance with regional targets. Thus, the following part presents the information that is currently available on the status of EE indicators, measures, and initiatives in the region, focusing on:

• losses due to commercial, technical, and overall distribution
• energy-efficient lighting in public areas
• energy-efficient air-conditioning, buildings, refrigerators, and the industrial sector are just a few examples [19].

4.1.3. Renewable Energy

The ECOWAS has placed high priority on sustainable energy for all goals. As a result, they have implemented aggressive regional policies for RE and EE as well as the targets for renewable energy, energy efficiency, and access to energy. The ECOWAS Renewable Energy Policy seeks to enhance access to power, particularly in rural regions, and to assure a higher percentage of RE sources in the energy supply. The strategy is primarily concerned with the power sector, but it also takes into account other sources of energy, such as the use of heat for home purposes and biofuels for transportation. The following overarching policy goals are what the EREP (ECOWAS Renewable Energy Policy) seeks to accomplish:

• To increase energy sustainability and security,
• To encourage equitable access to energy services,
• To offer remedies for domestic cooking energy,
• Foster social and economic development by creating an atmosphere that will attract the private sector and using renewable energy as a vehicle for industrial growth, integrating gender into discussions about renewable energy, particularly those pertaining to women’s productive responsibilities,
• To improve the ECOWAS Energy Efficiency Policy’s (EEEP) synergy.

One of the main EREP objectives is to increase the proportion of RE to 19% by 2030 in the region’s overall electricity mix [19]. ECREE’s best-case scenario predicts that by 2030, 75% of the population will be grid-connected and universal access for all ECOWAS citizens will be a reality. In the ECOWAS region, including medium and big hydro, renewable energy accounts for nearly 48% of the total installed electrical capacity by 2030. The remaining 25% of the ECOWAS population will receive their power from either extremely dependable stand-alone systems or mini-grids serving smaller communities in isolated rural areas. Mini-grids will offer premium services at affordable rates.

4.1.4. Climate Change

The ECOWAS region’s active energy agenda now includes consideration of climate change as a new issue. The ECOWAS countries’ energy security will be increasingly threatened by the effects of climate change; hence these effects must be taken into account while formulating energy strategy. The goal of ECOWAS’s regional climate plan is to create a community that is resilient to climate change’s effects and repercussions and has managed to take advantage of the related economic opportunities in order to promote long-term, low-carbon development. The ECOWAS regional climate strategy also aids in the execution of the African Union’s Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan for the years 2022–2032, which offers a framework for directing the actions of African states and regional organizations towards a low-carbon development model by emphasizing green and above all resilient growth and enhancing the adaptability of African economies, societies, and ecosystems. ECOWAS is creating its first regional climate strategy in order to establish regional mitigation and adaptation goals for 2030, the time frame that all of its Member States have chosen to meet their commitments in their initial National Determined Contribution (NDCs) and also help to realize the Sustainable Development Goals. The regional climate strategies’ goals are to: make sure the regional policy framework is coherent and consistent with the global goals of the Paris Agreement, gain the capacity to foresee dangers associated with climate change and to make well-informed decisions to manage them, encourage a paradigm shift in institutions and organizations on climate change, increase the ECOWAS and its member states’ capacity to put policies and measures against climate change into action, cooperate and stand together more, and encourage innovative methods for utilizing both internal and external financial resources [21].

4.2. Summary of the Selected Energy Policies

This qualitative review contains references from 2003 and the quantitative review references from 2011 (according to possibility) in order to carefully choose policies. The sources we used for our review provided pertinent quantitative or qualitative data. Five policies were selected per country for a total of 75 policies. The following tables: (

Table 1. Benin (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Benin	Energy Access Increase energy access with a focus on rural electrification; incentives to encourage energy efficiency Urban electrification target in 2025: 98% [25] Energy efficiency 85% in 2025 and 100% in 2030 of non-directional efficient household lamps sold per year, have 100% high-efficiency public streetlights in Benin by 2030 [26] Renewable energy Increase the installed capacity of power plants operating on the basis of energy renewables in MW (including medium and large hydro) to 810.2 MW in 2030 and also the share of renewable energies as % of total capacity installed to 18.83% in 2030; 6.7 MW of total renewable energy installed capacity (off-grid) was expected in 2020 [27,28] Climate change Addressing urgent and significant climate threats in agriculture, water resources, ecological variety, and human settlements [29].	Energy Access 2010: 25.7%, 2015: 30.7%, 2020: 31.3% 2025: 38.5% 2030: 45.1% Urban electrification achieved in 2020: 66% Energy efficiency in 2015, this percentage of high-efficiency public streetlights does not exceed 10%; Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 5.79, 2019: 5.69 Renewable energy Total renewable energy installed capacity (off-grid) in 2020: 1.54 MW. Projection of 24.6% renewable energy in the electrical mix by 2025 and the targets of building of 335.5 MW of hydropower facilities, 95 MW of solar PV, and 15 MW of biofuels Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2010: 5.5 MtCO2, 2020: 7.3 MtCO2	ABERME (2004)	Energy access	The country is still working on various rural electrification projects. Policies have helped achieve in 2016 the project Yerikpo Hydro Dam (1 MW)
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan NEEAP (2015)	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan Renewable energy NREAP (2015)	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			National Adaptation Program of Action on Climate Change NAPA (2008)	Climate change
			Law 2020-05 of 1 April 2020	Energy access Energy efficiency Renewable energy

: Benin,

Table 2. Burkina Faso (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Burkina Faso	Energy Access Accelerate energy access with energy efficiency and renewable energy measures [30] Energy efficiency Energy access and save and/or release 100 GWh each year over the 2016–2020 period and 208 GWh each year over the 2021–2030 period [31] Renewable energy Promote and regulate renewable energy. By 2030, to increase the amount of renewable energy in the electrical mix to 50% and increase electrification rates in urban and rural areas to 95% and 50%, respectively. In order to achieve this, renewable energy sources will account for 50% of the electrical mix in 2030, excluding biomass used for cooking. To get 150 MW in 2020 and 318 MW for 2030 installed capacity of power plants operating on the basis of energy renewables in MW (including medium and large hydro) [32] Climate change develop adaptation and resilience capabilities to lessen vulnerability to the effects of climate change; and (ii) make it easier to integrate climate change adaptation into new or existing policies, programs [33]	Energy Access 2010: 13.6%, 2015: 18.8%, 2020:21.3%, 2025: 24.8%, 2030: 27.9% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015:4.94, 2019: 4.5 Renewable energy The installed capacity of power plants operating on the basis of energy renewables in MW (including medium and large hydro) increased from 32 MW in 2010 to 98 MW in 2020.Renewable installed capacity increased at an average annual rate of 24% between 2015 and 2019, bringing the total installed capacity to 98 MW by the end of that year. This represents the installation of an extra 57 MW of solar PV power, largely on and off the grid, in recent years. Burkina Faso met 21% of the renewable electricity target set forth in NREAP and NEEAP as of the end of 2019. The installed PV capabilities would expand from 65 MW in 2015 to 205 MW expected in 2030. Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2010: 2.29 MtCO2, 2020: 5	The Energy Sector Development Policy Paper revised in 2009	Energy access Energy efficiency Renewable energy	The single-buyer model and market segmentation are eliminated by the Law of April 20, 2017. These statutes established the requirements for eligibility for the tax exemption on imports and sales of solar materials and equipment. As a result, about 155 MW of IPP and publicly owned solar projects have moved into the advanced planning or construction stage in Burkina Faso. Solar AfD 3 MW 2016 PPP/PIE 2017 Samandéni 3 MW, Ouaga Solaire 30 MW, PPP/PIE Solaire BID 13 MW, PPP/PIE Solaire Kodeni 15 MW, PPP/PIE Solaire Pa 15 MW, PPP/PIE Solaire Patte d’Oie 6 MW, PPP/PIE Solaire Zagtouli 15 MW, and PPP/PIE Solaire Zano 10 MW are some examples of the power plant initiatives implemented in 2016 and 2017 in the country with the contribution of NREAP and Law 014-2017/AN of 20 April 2017
			Law 014-2017/AN of 20 April 2017	Energy access Renewable energy
			National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (NAP) (2015)	Climate change
			NEEAP (2015)	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			NREAP (2015)	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency

: Burkina Faso,

Table 3. Cape Verde (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Cabo Verde (Cape Verde)	Energy Access ensure a safe and dependable energy supply and expand service availability to all consumers at a fair price that is not discriminatory in use [34] Energy efficiency Encourage innovation and efficiency in the nation’s power production, transmission, distribution, and use Reduction of 10% in consumption of diesel, gasoline, kerosene in 2030; reduction of 20% in electricity consumption in 2030 compared to the base case; Reduction of technical losses and totals in electric network for values of the order of 8% [35]. Renewable energy Increase the usage of cogeneration and renewable energy sources to generate electricity, increase and focus on the production of power from renewable, the use of wind and solar energy, the development of energy efficiency, and the eradication of energy losses by the years 2025 and 2030. In addition, the government has set a goal for 2030 of incorporating 50% renewable energy into the mix of energy sources [35]. The idea for a significant sectoral transformation that would result in a deep change in technologies, practices, and market norms is to produce 100% renewable electricity [36]. Climate change Understand the primary characteristics of climate hazards in Cabo Verde [37].	Energy Access 2010: 81.1% 2015: 86.4% 2020: 94.2% 2030: 100% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 2.64, 2019: 2.6 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2010: 14.82, 2020: 63.64 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2010:0.54 MtCO2, 2020: 0.65 The majority of programs in the nation concentrate on raising the amount of renewable energy produced, using wind and solar energy, developing energy efficiency, and eliminating energy losses by the years 2025 and 2030.	Decree Law 14/2006	Energy access	Pump storage 1 2 MW, generic PV system (utility) 5 MW, and generic wind near grid 5 MW for 2018
			National Adaptation Program of Action on Climate Change (NAPA): 2007	Climate change
			Law 39/2019 of 8 April	Energy access Energy efficiency Renewable energy
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan Renewable energy (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency

: Cabo Verde,

Table 4. Côte d’Ivoire (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Côte d’Ivoire	Energy Access Universal access by 2030 [38] Energy efficiency To have more energy saving in 2030, the replacement of all the public lighting park of SHP lamps by LED lamps, to have an energy saving of 442 GWh in 2030 [39] Renewable energy To improve the energy mix by producing electricity from hydroelectricity by 26% in 2030, increase renewable energies to reach 42% (26% large and medium hydro and 16% other renewable sources) in the 2030. By 2030, 42% rise in the amount of renewable energy used to meet global electricity demand, a 26% increase in the amount of big and medium hydropower, and a 16% increase in the amount of other renewable energy sources [40] Climate change Adaptation to Climate Change (ACC) in Côte d’Ivoire [41]	Energy Access 2010: 58.9%, 2015: 62.8%, 2020: 78.1%, 2025: 88.4%, 2030: 99.8% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 3.96, 2019: 3.32; The replacement of all the public lighting park of SHP lamps by LED lamps, allows having an energy saving of 83 GWh in 2020. Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita: 2015: 26.82, 2020: 33.82 The percentage of renewable electricity generation doubled from 15% to 30% between 2016 and 2018. This was accomplished by the nation by substituting hydropower for approximately 17% of its natural gas-based electricity generating. Since NREAP and NEEAP, 278 MW more of renewable energy were put into service in 2017, bringing the total installed capacity to 887 MW by 2019. The nation has met 14% of the 2016 renewable energy target as of the end of 2019. Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2015: 9.8 MtCO2, 2020: 10.81 MtCO2	National Climate Change Programme (Programme National Changement Climatique or PNCC): 2014	Climate change	2016 saw the construction of the fourth central IPP (Abbata), which has a 150 MW capacity. The city of Jacqueville has expanded its fleet of taxis to include three-wheeled electric vehicles (EVs) as part of its energy efficiency goals. The EVs have a 140 km driving range, and solar panels are used to recharge their batteries. In addition to offering advantages for the environment and human health, EVs are 50% less expensive per journey than traditional taxis.
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP):2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan Renewable energy (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			Decree 2016-862 of 3 November 2016	Energy access Energy efficiency Renewable energy
			National Adaptation Plan (NAP): 2016	Climate change

: Côte d’Ivoire,

Table 5. Gambia (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implementation to Date
Gambia	Energy Access to regulate electricity service providers, accelerate energy access [42] Energy efficiency Gambia is expected by 2030, 100% charcoal produced using efficient charcoal production technologies; Reduce T&D losses to 10%; reach 15% of energy savings in the building sector [43] Renewable energy Promoting the use of renewable energy resources and for related topics, and it regulates the renewable energy industry in the Gambia. By 2030;50 MW solar PV + 20 MW wind power capacity; 38.9% grid connected RE capacity; equip 50% of district health centers, maternities, school kitchens and boarding schools with solar thermal system; equip 50% of hotels and 25% of agroindustry with solar thermal system [44] Climate change Addressing urgent and significant climate threats, accelerate climate threats and national actions [45]	Energy Access 2010: 46.7% 2015: 54.6% 2020: 62.3% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 3.48, 2019: 2.97 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita: 2015: 1.62, 2020: 1.40 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2015: 0.45 MtCO2, 2020: 0.58 MtCO2	National Adoption Programme of action on Climate Change (NAPA): 2007	Climate change	1 MW in 2016 (Bakau) and 20 MW in 2017 (Brikama) of additional generation capacity
			Gambia National Action Plan: 2012	Climate change
			Bill/Act of 2013	Energy access
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan Energy efficiency (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan Renewable energy (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency

: Gambia,

Table 6. Ghana (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Ghana	Energy Access By 2030, universal access and increase the capacity for producing electricity from renewable sources [46] Energy efficiency Offers baseline information on the state of energy efficiency development and suggests reachable energy efficiency targets, Additionally, a summary of the nation’s planned laws, incentives, and actions is provided [47]. Renewable energy By 2030, the capacity for producing electricity from renewable sources is expected to reach 1353.63 MW, which would result in the creation of 220,000 jobs and an estimated 11 million tons of CO2 in carbon savings [48]. Climate change The NCCP places a strong emphasis on low carbon growth as well as a development route that is climate resilient. Combining traditional knowledge with recent and developing research. It suggests establishing a center for specialized research on climate change, accelerate the transition to sustainable energy, create resilient economies and societies, improve early warning and catastrophe risk management, enhance landscape restoration [49]	Energy Access 2010: 64.9% 2015: 75.8% 2020: 84.8% 2025: 88.6% 2030: 94.9% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 3.03, 2019: 2.85 Renewable energy A total of 1582.5 MW of renewable energy was installed in 2013. In 2020, this grew to 1700 MW. Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2010: 44.89 2020: 54.28 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2015: 15.78 MtCO2 2020: 20.04 MtCO2	Electricity Act: 2011	Energy access, renewable energy Energy efficiency	One of sub-Saharan Africa’s countries with the highest connection rates is Ghana. The strategy for increasing access in Ghana emphasizes grid extension, especially in rural areas, and primarily takes into account off-grid options for island communities. 2016 Sunon Asogli phase 2, 170 MW, KTPP 200 MW, 225 MW for Karpower, 30 MW for Aboadze T3 phase 1 (TEMA1, 2, 2X), 230 MW for AMERI, and 20 MW for VRA + BXC. 74 MW generic PV system (utility) in 2018 and 225 MW Ayitepa Wind Farm
			National Climate Change Policy (NCCP): 2013	Climate change
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan Ghana (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): 2015	Energy access Climate change, Renewable energy, energy efficiency

: Ghana,

Table 7. Guinea (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Guinea	Energy Access Accelerate energy access [50] Energy efficiency To implement energy-saving strategies and to advance renewable energy sources. For this, the state provides incentives, subsidies, or loans for renewable energy equipment at discounted prices [19] Renewable energy Achieve regional development through the stated vision and goals. This point of reference will be used to evaluate the impact of policies, practices, or activities at the regional or local level [51] Climate change Define the priority activities to be implemented works to meet the immediate needs and urgent concerns of socioeconomic groups with a view to their adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change, increase resilience and adaptation to adverse impacts of climate change in Guinea’s vulnerable coastal zones [52]	Energy Access 2010: 28% 2015: 34.7% 2020: 44.7% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 6.37, 2019: 5.57 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2015: 33.37 2020: 29.06 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2010: 2.5 MtCO2, 2020: 3.15 MtCO2	National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)GUINEE: 2007	Climate change	Kipé 50 MW, Loffa (rehab) 1 MW, and K-Energy 75 MW in 2016. A little decrease in reliance on fossil fuels and a rise in hydropower production. Although Guinea is currently constructing two sizable hydropower projects, no precise information on the electricity-related greenhouse gas emissions is available.
			Law 2014/30/1/6/1/2/N	Energy access Energy efficiency Renewable energy Climate change
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Adoption Plan (NAP): 2016	Climate change

: Guinea,

Table 8. Guinea Bissau (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Guinea Bissau	Energy Access Organization and rules that apply to the various types of energy as well as the structure of the energy sector; provide energy to about 72% of the country’s population by 2030 [53] Energy efficiency EE initiatives in lighting and buildings [54] Renewable energy adding more than 70 MW of renewable capacity by 2030 [53] Climate change Determine how vulnerable the nation was to the aforementioned phenomena, as well as to recommend actions and top priorities for reducing and/or mitigating the effects of climate change [55]	Energy Access 2010: 6% 2015: 20.1% 2020: 33.3% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 9.69; 2019: 8.59 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2015:0.18, 2020:0.59 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2010: 0.24 MtCO2 2020: 0.33 MtCO2	National Programme of Action of Adaptation to Climate Changes (NAPA): 2006	Climate change	100 kW generic diesel system from 2018 (industry) 1 MW, utility-grade generic PV system, 7 MW
			Decree Law 2/2007	Energy access
			Decree Law 3/2007	Energy access Energy efficiency Renewable energy
			National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP):2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency

: Guinea Bissau,

Table 9. Liberia (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Liberia	Energy Access To ensure that everyone has access to contemporary energy services at a price that is fair, cheap, and ecologically responsible [56] Energy efficiency Adopt efficiency measures that, by 2030, release 1054 MW of power producing capacity. 53 MW annually on average and by 2024, lower average electricity distribution losses from their current range of 28–40% to 10% globally [57] Renewable energy Focus on renewable energy, solar water heating, cooking fuels and technologies, and biofuels [58] Climate change Achieve carbon neutrality for Liberia by 2050 [59]; For the NAP process, priority sectors have been identified. These include environmental management and development, agriculture, energy, forestry, health, and waste disposal [60].	Energy Access 2010: 5.2% 2015: 15.2% 2020: 27.5% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 13; 2019: 14.33 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2017: 20.08, 2020: 18 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2010: 0.73 MtCO2 2020: 1.18 MtCO2	Rural and Renewable Energy Agency (RREA) (2015)	Energy access Renewable energy Energy efficiency	2016 generic diesel 100 kW system (industry) 2 MW, generic diesel/gasoline 1 kW system (rural) 1 MW, 2017 Mount Coffee 22 MW
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAPs): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			National Climate Change Response Strategy: 2018	Climate change
			NAP (2020)	Climate change

: Liberia,

Table 10. Mali (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Mali	Energy Access The goal is to put in place the framework for residential energy use and rural electrification [61]. Energy efficiency to reduce the primary supply needs, particularly electricity, and promote a better contribution development of Mali in achieving the regional target in 2030 [62]. Renewable energy Promoting sustainable energy in Mali. By making renewable energy sources more accessible to the vast majority of Malian citizens [63], it seeks to facilitate an ecological transition and increase the use of renewable energy sources, increase the contribution of renewable energy sources in supplying energy to 25% in 2033 for electricity production, and from to 10% in 2033 for bioenergy [64]. Climate change Address the need for creating a realistically practicable national program of action for climate change adaptation [65].	Energy Access 2010: 27.1%, 2015: 36%, 2020: 52%, 2025: 57.8%, 2030: 62.8% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 5.23; 2019: 4.59 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2017: 20.23, 2020: 20.98 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2015: 3.5 MtCO2, 2020: 7.83 MtCO2	Malian Agency for the Development of Domestic Energy and Rural Electrification (AMADER): 2003	Energy access	2018 diesel generators 2 MW, Felou portion Mali 45% 60 MW, 2017 diesel generators 2 MW
			National Adoption Programme of Action on climate change (NAPA): 2007	Climate change
			Mali Renewable Energy Agency (AER-Mali): 2014	Energy access Energy efficiency Renewable energy Climate change
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP):2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAPs): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency

: Mali,

Table 11. Niger (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Niger	Energy Access Projecting a rise in the national electrification rate to 65% by 2030 goals for the national energy mix by 2030 include a 30% share of renewable energy sources (150 MW from grid solar; 100 MW from off-grid solar; 20 MW from wind [66]. Energy efficiency Achieve the ECOWAS’s energy efficiency targets [67]. Renewable energy Promote biofuel for its use for motive power needs in rural environment [68]. Climate change To decrease the negative effects of climate change on Niger’s most vulnerable communities in order to promote sustainable development and the fight against poverty [69]; to ensure that the nation’s long-term development strategy, beginning with its “2035 Vision,” fully integrates risks and opportunities associated to climate change, encourages inclusive growth, and strengthens sustainable development [70].	Energy Access 2010: 8.6%, 2015: 10.7%, 2020: 13.6%, 2025: 14.1%, 2030: 15.1% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 5.48; 2019: 4.99 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2015: 0.35, 2020: 1.12 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2010: 1.41 MtCO2 2020: 2.15 MtCO2	National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA): 2006	Climate change	Solar 7 MW, 2016 generic diesel 100 kW system (industrial), 6 MW, 2017 Tchiro 11 MW, and Kandadji 130 MW
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			the Electricity Law 2016-05 of 17 May 2016	Electrification Renewable energy
			National Action Plan (NAP): 2016	Climate change
			National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAPs): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency

: Niger,

Table 12. Nigeria (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Nigeria	Energy Access The objective was to achieve a national electrification rate of 75% by 2020 [71]. Energy efficiency Set goals for household lighting efficiency of 100% by 2030, as well as increases in energy efficiency of 50% in the transport, electricity, and industrial sectors, respectively [72]. Renewable energy Nigeria was given the goal of obtaining 16% of its electricity needs from renewable sources by 2030 [73]. To have 13 GW of off-grid solar PV systems contributing to Nigeria’s electricity mix, with an annual increase in energy efficiency from 2% to 30% [74]. Climate change To have as a focal point for integrating numerous climate adaptation planning initiatives from multiple industries and decision-making scales [75].	Energy Access 2010: 51.7%, 2015: 58.3%, 2020: 68.2%, 2025: 74.4%, 2030: 80.3% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2005: 7.94; 2010: 6.83; 2019: 6.39 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2015: 11.8, 2020: 10.44 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2016: 107.76 MtCO2 2020: 115.28 MtCO2	National Energy Policy (NEP): 2003	Energy access Renewable energy Energy efficiency	2016 Kainji 340 MW, Shiroro 150 MW, Jebba 80 MW, and CPG Okija 1277 MW; 2018 utility-grade generic PV system, 417 MW
			Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC): 2015	Energy efficiency Renewable energy Climate change
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			National Adoption Plan framework: 2020	Climate change Renewable energy

: Nigeria,

Table 13. Senegal (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Senegal	Energy Access Universal access by 2030 [76]. Energy efficiency encourages the growth of renewable energy sources, increases access to contemporary energy services for more people by assuring a more equal distribution of resources that benefits vulnerable groups and underserved areas, and encourages energy, Increase energy access and by 2030: (i) Network lighting penetration rate of 99%; (ii) lighting penetration rate off-grid by 1%; (iii) Number of devices with active tags equal to 6; (iv) Percentage of industries having applied efficiency measures equal to 80%; and (v) Percentage of Energy Savings in industry equal to 25%management and efficiency [77]. Renewable energy contributing to the sustainable development of Senegal, the following priority areas have been selected: Increase the contribution of renewable energies in meeting needs national energy sources [78] and contribute to reducing dependence on imports fossil fuels taking into account the preservation of the environment; Strengthen access to modern energy services from renewable sources, affordable and sustainable [79]. Climate change Highlights places most at risk from climate change and outlines the government of Senegal’s priority industries and programs, emphasizes how critical it is to integrate efforts to combat climate change into all pertinent national ministries, organizations, and policies [80].	Energy Access 2010: 57%, 2015: 62%, 2020: 70.4%, 2025: 89.8%, 2030: 100% Urban electricity access rate in 2020: 95% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 4.19; 2019: 3.67 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2015:2.33, 2020:14.69 The installed capacity of power plants operating on the basis of energy renewable energy increased from 34 MW in 2015 to 67 MW in 2016 (i.e., double in a one-year interval) and from 67 MW in 2016 to 251 MW in 2019 and 355 MW in 2020. A result beyond the expectations of the NREAP which predicted 322 in MW in 2020. The country is on track to achieve its objective of 407 MW in 2030 Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2016: 10.13 MtCO2 2020: 10.62 MtCO2	(NAPA) the National Action Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change: 2006	Climate change	The largest wind farm in western Africa (158 MW), 100 MW of IPP solar power plants, created privately and through the World Bank Scaling Solar program, and hydroelectric electricity imports via the WAPP are also included. Fossil fuels increased by 41 MW between 2016 and 2019, while renewable energy increased by 141 MW. Additionally, compared to 2016, the amount of electricity produced using renewable sources more than tripled in 2018. Conversely, the amount of electricity produced using fossil fuels remained largely unchanged. According to IRENA, Senegal’s installed renewable energy capacity is expected to rise at a CAGR of 24% through 2030 if the targets are met. Additionally, we have in terms of new generation capacity: in 2016 IPP Contour Global 52 MW, 2017 Central Diass Finanzierung Kfw 15 MW, and Taiba Ndiaye 50 MW; in 2018: Sendou 125 MW, Centrale Niass Finance 15 MW, generic wind near grid 22 MW, and Taiba Ndiaye 50 MW. In 2019: Mboro 300 MW, 156 MW of generic PV system (utility), and 50 MW of Taiba Ndiaye.
			Law on Renewable Energy: 2011	Renewable energy
			LDPSE 2012–2017	Energy access, energy efficiency, renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy

: Senegal,

Table 14. Sierra Leone (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Sierra Leone	Energy Access Increase Energy access [81] and renewable energy strategies [82]. Energy efficiency Targets for energy efficient lighting, high-performance electricity distribution [83]. Renewable energy Advancing renewable energy development to draw private investments, bringing power to rural and isolated places, increasing the percentage contribution of solar energy to the whole energy mix, intended to pave the way for comprehensive legislation, rules, and regulations and increase renewable installed capacity [84]. Climate change Identify a list of priority activities; develop priority adaptation options; increase capacity for adaptation to longer-term climate change and variability [85].	Energy Access 2010: 11.5%, 2015: 19.5% 2020: 26.2% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 6.18; 2019: 5.40 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2015: 12.61, 2020: 12.42. Of the 659 MW of installed renewable energy capacity projected by NREAP for 2020, only 99 MW has been installed. Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2015: 0.91 MtCO2, 2020: 0.9 MtCO2	National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA): 2007	Climate change	In term of new generation capacity: 2016 generic diesel 100 kW system (industry) 7 MW; 2017 Addax 8 MW; generic diesel 100 kW system (industry) 7 MW; and Solar2 6 MW
			Sierra Leone National Energy Strategic Plan: 2009	Energy access Renewable energy
			National Electricity Act: 2011	Energy access Renewable energy
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP): 2015	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP): 2015	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency

: Sierra Leone,

Table 15. Togo (data from [22,23,24]).

Country	Targets	Quantitative Status to Date and Projections	Policy Option	Category	Initiatives Implemented to Date
Togo	Energy Access Improve energy access to the population [86]. Energy efficiency Establish the rural electrification and energy management agency; increasing public knowledge of the advantages of energy conservation; and a number of other strategic activities are suggested [87]. Renewable energy Strengthen the country’s capacity for the use of solar energy; use solar energy as a complementary source of energy in rural and urban areas; develop the market for solar technologies; develop solar technologies at the local level; bring the share of solar in final energy consumption to 10% in 2030 both on-grid and off-grid, create a legal foundation of renewable energy [88]. Climate change Implementing a participatory and integrated analysis of the degree of climate change vulnerability of the various regions, social groups, and key sectors of Togo [89].	Energy Access 2010: 22.2%, 2015: 33.1% 2020: 46.1%, 2025: 67.3% 2030: 86.8% Energy efficiency Energy intensity in MJ per 2017 USD PPP: 2015: 9.17; 2019: 8.02 Renewable energy Installed renewable capacity per capita (W per capita): 2018: 8.89, 2020: 8.72. Creation of the legal foundation for the infrastructure required for the production, storage, transportation, distribution, marketing, and consumption of electricity derived from renewable energy sources. Climate change Total CO2 emissions 2015: 1.83 MtCO2 2020:2.37 MtCO2	Law on the electrical code—2007	Energy access	1 MW of new renewable energy capacity was added by the nation between 2015 and 2019; The rural electrification and energy management agency have been created in 2016.
			National Adaptation Programme for Action (NAPA): 2009	Climate change
			National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) (2015)	Energy efficiency Energy access Renewable energy
			National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP)	Renewable energy Energy access Energy efficiency
			Law 2018-010: 2018	Energy access Renewable energy

: Togo) show the list of selected policies for each country, with a short description of targets, quantitative status and initiatives implemented to date.

4.3. Policy Examination Results

The MCDA of policy implementation status and resulting effects provides an analysis of the effectiveness of current policy. The results (Figure 5) of the analysis of the 75 policies selected for the 15 ECOWAS countries allow us to categorize three different types of policies, each with some variations:

• Policies with a weighted final score below 40% are shown as the second majority class in the final graph. In this category, there are 18 policies.
• Policies with a weighted final score between 40 and 60% form the dominant class: the majority of policies can be found in this category. A total of 50 policies obtained a score within this margin.
• Policies with final scores over 60%.

The seven highest scores for implementation and resulting impact were policies selected in the renewable and energy efficiency category. It should also be mentioned that no policy obtained a score higher than 80. The seven policies with the best scores for implementation and resulting impact are: NREAP (Senegal) 76.88, NEEAP (Senegal) 73.25, LPDSE 2012–2017 (Senegal) 70.94, NREAP (Cape Verde) 65, NREAP (Ghana) 63.75, Law 014-2017/AN of 20 April 2017 (Burkina Faso) 62.5, and NEEAP (Ghana) 61.56.

The common denominator for the seven policies is that quantitative data gathered during the policy review were able to demonstrate relevance to somehow achieve the national targets and the ECOWAS target in terms of energy efficiency (C2) and relevance to increase renewable energy techniques and attain the objectives set by the ECOWAS renewable energy policy (C3). The limitations of the seven policies relate to the ability to measure impact due to a lack of management and clear order of implemented projects. The acceptable results of the LPDSE2012-2017 Senegal (70.94) are noted in the context of its launch in 2012 when Senegal was going through an energy crisis. It has succeeded in promoting the increase in production capacities with a strong penetration of renewable energies and taking into account of the principle of energy management in consumption habits and access to electricity for rural populations. With a contribution of that policy, in 2018, 1.5 million Senegalese benefited from solar household systems and mini-grids, which dominate decentralized renewable energy solutions in the country. Compared to most other western African nations, Senegal has 78,000 more people who benefit from mini-grids with a rural electrification rate that has gone from 27% to 42, 3% between 2012 and 2018 [90]. Our analysis also shows our progress in certain countries such as Togo and Benin, even if the results are still far from satisfactory. In Togo, for example, the development of renewable energies has made it possible, through NREAP, to slightly improve the proportion of the population with access to electricity. From 33.1% in 2015, and 46.1% in 2020, we are currently at 52.9% in 2022 [91].

Additionally, we see that the seven policies with the highest scores suffer from a lack of a holistic policy approach, or a failure to effectively integrate the issues of energy access, renewable energy, energy efficiency, and climate change. This deficit is much more apparent for policies that obtained lower scores. Lower ranking policies such as ABERME Benin (30), AMADER Mali (30.31), NAPA Niger (31.25), NAPA Gambia (34.06), PANA Guinea (34.38), and NAP Liberia (35) have seen less progress. For those policies, the common problems found are difficult to measure impact of policy, no direct reference to achieve the national targets or the ECOWAS target in terms of energy efficiency, no relevance to increase renewable energy techniques and achieve the goals set by the ECOWAS general policies, lack of private investment or international cooperation sometimes not mentioned, and lack of quantitative targets as well as the fact that there is no flexibility in terms of policy implementation.

4.4. Comparison of Energy Policy Results: Case Study of National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) and National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP)

To accomplish the goals of Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) by 2030, two regional strategies on renewable energy and energy efficiency have been designed. The attainment of the goals established can only be accomplished via the careful application and coordination of national-level policies to benefit from gains in costs, effectiveness, and efficiency. This comparative graph shown in Figure 6, which was produced from the outcomes of the multicriteria decision analysis, offers us an indication of how each country in the region is doing with regard to implementing the predetermined goals of NREAP and NEEAP. The two policies being complementary, countries with a good score for one necessarily have it for the other, except the case of Cape Verde, where NEEAP scored a little lower than NREAP.

The results obtained in Figure 6 can be divided into three categories:

• Policies having obtained a score of 0–40

We count five policies.

• Policies having obtained a score of 40–60

It is the margin where most of the policies are found. There are 20 policies.

• Policies having obtained a score of 60–80

A total of five policies.

The following are the top five policies in terms of implementation and influence: NREAP Senegal 76.88, NEEAP Senegal 73.25, NREAP Cape Verde 65, NREAP Ghana 63.75, and NEEAP Ghana 61.56. The policy with the highest score (NREAP Senegal: 76.875) obtained the best scores for all criteria except criterion 4. The second policy (NEEAP Senegal: 73.25), like the three that come after it, received favorable ratings for criteria 2, 3, and 6.

This result is explained by the following factors: a minimum reference to increase ECOWAS target in terms of energy efficiency (C2), renewable energy techniques and achieve the goals set by the ECOWAS renewable energy policy (C3); private investment or international cooperation are mentioned; and some degree of inclusion of quantitative/qualitative targets and the presence of a minimal degree of implementation flexibility (C6). Low scores were obtained by policies such as: NEEAP Guinea Bissau (35.3125), NREAP Niger (36.25), and NEEAP Niger (37.1875). In terms of achieving the national targets and the ECOWAS aim in terms of energy efficiency (C2), it was challenging to quantify the impact of both initiatives. Additionally, there was no connection between expanding renewable energy sources and achieving the objectives set forth by the ECOWAS renewable energy policy (C3). Even though the private sector is mentioned (C4) in these policies, there are no quantifiable goals specified or implementation flexibility (C6).

Twelve of the 30 country EE and RE policies had a rating of 50 or above. The following nations were Senegal, Cape Verde, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Nigeria, and Burkina Faso. Togo (NEEAP-NREAP: 48.44) and Benin (NEEAP: 47.81, NREAP: 47.5) follow with results close to the average. Although the dynamic launched looks to promise future progress, it must be acknowledged that in Togo and Benin, the quantitative results of the Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency policies are small. For example, Togo constructed only 1 MW of additional renewable energy capacity between 2015 and 2019, and hence 207 MW will need to be installed during the following 10 years if Togo is to reach the capacity predictions in the NREAP. According to this plan, installed renewable energy capacity will increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 10% over the following 10 years, which is significantly higher than the 0.4% observed between 2015 and 2019. These policies that have obtained a score above 50 are generally those of countries that have made efforts and obtained some tangible results according to the objectives set at national and regional level. The highest score was obtained by Senegal. This is due to the remarkable efforts made in recent years. The development of 360 MW of solar PV, 350 MW of wind, 199 MW of hydropower, 165 MW of biomass, 55 MW of CSP, 5392 solar mini-grids, and 73,500 biodigesters are among the renewable energy targets in Senegal’s NDC. Since the implementation of the NREAP, Senegal has made progress toward its renewable energy goals thanks to the following initiatives: 100 MW of IPP solar power plants, built privately and in accordance with the World Bank Scaling Solar program; western Africa’s largest wind farm (158 MW); and hydroelectric power imports through the WAPP. Fossil fuels increased by 41 MW between 2016 and 2019, while renewable energy increased by 141 MW. Additionally, compared to 2016, the amount of electricity produced using renewable sources had more than tripled in 2018 [92]. That said, the weaknesses are observable, as evidenced by scores less than 80. Among other things, we can cite the need for financing to support technological innovation in renewable energies and the production of electricity from fossil fuels, which have remained more or less the same.

With a score of 65 obtained by the NREAP, Cape Verde occupies second place in terms of implementation of national action plans for renewable energies. Of 100% access to electricity in 2015, Cape Verde reached 88.7% in 2017 thanks to the penetration of renewable energies. In 2020, this rate reached 94.2% [93]. Even though the goals of 2017 and 2020 were not reached, progress is visible, with chances of reaching 100% in 2030. Ghana’s NREAP is among the best scores in our analysis (63.75), which can be explained by the fact that Ghana is committed to sustainable development and the productive use of renewable energies to solve the problems of access to energy. In 2015, while 75.8% of the population had access to electricity, only 64.2% of the population was served by grid electricity. This proportion has improved with access to energy increasing to 84.8% in 2020. If this momentum continues, the objective set by the NREAP to achieve 100% access by 2030 is possible, even though the IEA forecasts estimate this access to electricity at 94.9% in 2030 [94]. As for Côte d’Ivoire, whose final score obtained by the NREAP was 55.63%, the installed capacity of power plants operating on the basis of energy renewables in MW (including medium and large hydro) increased from 604 MW in 2010 to 879 MW in 2020 [24]. Progress, no doubt, even if we are still far from the 3259 MW set by the NREAP for 2030.

4.5. Barriers

The evaluation of ECOWAS energy policies has highlighted significant opportunities for improvement, both in design and in implementation. Beyond that, several difficulties remain, in particular the difficulty in quantifying the status of policy implementation for implications, since the majority of sources provided qualitative information. Most of the policies that scored low in our analysis scored low on relevance to achieve national targets and the ECOWAS target in terms of energy efficiency and relevance to increase renewable energy techniques and achieve the goals set by the ECOWAS renewable energy policy.

The five categories of obstacles that we identified during our examination and analysis are:

• National and regional information management: lack of accessible information in a clear manner on the energy situation of the countries in the region, lack of accessible information on the annual monitoring of national renewable energy and energy efficiency policies and targets.
• Technological: despite the region’s strong potential for renewable energy, a technical gap limits the countries in the region from taking advantage of this potential for a more successful low-carbon transition.
• Institutional framework: numerous projects are frequently carried out without a clear follow-up and assessment of the projects already completed. This was noted in several countries during our review, where for the same year, we encountered the same projects of the same category without the current project really taking into account the results or the experience obtained by the previous one.
• Financial: lack of funding in several projects and also for technological innovations that optimize the performance of energy systems using renewable energies.

5. Discussion

Our work allows us to classify the current energy policies of ECOWAS countries and their respective objectives in four key categories: energy access, energy efficiency, renewable energy, and climate change. Our analysis of the 75 policies gives us an idea of the energy policy environment for energy transition in western Africa. Of the 75 policies, 26 obtained a score above 50, which is a percentage of 34.66%. This no doubt shows that there is still a lot to be done in terms of energy policy to make the low-carbon transition a success in the community. Although all the criteria are important in an effective energy transition policy, we wanted to weight Criterion 2 (relevance to achieve the national targets and the ECOWAS target in terms of energy efficiency) and Criterion 3 (relevance to increase renewable energy techniques and achieve the goals set by the ECOWAS renewable energy policy) much more in view of their great importance to a successful transition. This has made it possible to highlight ECOWAS policies that have a much greater impact on energy efficiency and renewable energies, which are the major challenges of the community’s low-carbon transition.

Additionally, the outcomes of the policy analysis revealed the following limitations.

• It is often impossible to evaluate certain policies, which makes it tough to score the ability to measure impact (Criterion 1).
• Private investment and international cooperation (Criterion 4), being also a determining factor in energy policy, has been weighted a little less than Criteria 2 and 3, even if this is explained by the fact that this is a general problem of the countries of the ECOWAS and that its strong weighting would not have made it possible to better observe the capital importance of Criteria 2 and 3. It must be recognized that it has somewhat disadvantaged the policies of countries like Nigeria, which have a much greater investment margin.
• A number of strategies, particularly the EE and RE action plans, have set intriguing national and regional objectives without, however, making it possible to measure success (Criterion 1).
• Due to the nature of MCDA, additional restrictions include the use of only secondary data sources, potential bias in data because the majority of the sources were online articles and intergovernmental reports, a lack of qualitative data to evaluate implementation and the resulting impact to date, and a limited sensitivity analysis performed for MCDA.

The limitations of our research lead us to formulate the following approach for future research:

• Gathering opinions/score values for each criterion from knowledgeable individuals present in the countries (at least 30 opinions/persons per country) on clearly defined policies that are all implemented in all countries, calculation of an average score per criterion for each country for each energy policy, and the presentation of the various scores obtained for each country in a hierarchical graph based on a weighted final score (allowing to isolate categories or a general differentiation).
• A multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) based on Criteria C1, C2, and C6 that compares policies of similar countries based on how well they scored for each of these criteria (which would make it possible to better infer the existence of common realities within the countries influencing energy policies).
• The gathering of scores according to each criterion over a number of years would also be intriguing in the context of a long-term forecast of the evolution of policies within nations, but this would make use of the implementation of long-term policies.

6. Conclusions

Since the Paris Agreement, there has been progress in the ECOWAS countries with the implementation of energy policies increasingly ambitious, taking into account the decarbonization strategies of their system energy. Energy access (universal access by 2030), energy efficiency (by 2030, the entire ECOWAS population will have access to affordable, efficient, safe, and sustainable cooking), renewable energy (48% of total renewable energy penetration in terms of MW installed capacity by 2030, obtaining by 2030 31% of the world’s total production of renewable energy, and climate change (to assist Member States in meeting their commitments under the Paris Agreement and in tackling the challenges of the battle against climate change) are the four main categories covered by ECOWAS’s present energy policy.

The analysis of the different national action plans for renewable energy and energy efficiency and action agendas implemented by ECOWAS Member States highlights the benefits of the complementarity of the different policies on all objectives. In order to benefit from this complementarity, it would be necessary to highlight synergetic policies at regional level and national levels.

Taking into account the findings of the policy analysis, a successful low-carbon energy policy in the region should include a means of tracking progress, such as quantitative targets, a clear path to achieving the national targets and the ECOWAS target in terms of energy efficiency, as well as a way to increase renewable energy techniques and reach the ECOWAS goals before 2030. Even in nations with commendable accomplishments, more work must be done to pursue a sustained low-carbon growth path. For example, to assure a low-carbon future for Ghana’s power sector, incentives for early decommissioning and focused initiatives to expand renewable energy generation, together with creative solutions, would be needed.

We recommend taking the following national and regional measures.

• At the regional level, ECOWAS could do a lot more to encourage the community’s member nations to conduct progressive reviews of the action plans for EE and RE through ECREEE, which serves as the action plan development coordinator for national and action agendas through the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) program. Since the majority of the countries in the region have fallen short of these 2020 goals, a significant revision is necessary.
• At the national level, the energy-related ministries that are in charge of leading the effort to produce the action plan must take more initiatives in order to make the 2030 targets. Once these obstacles are removed, the boost of private investment and international cooperation (Criterion 4) will contribute to better efficiency of ECOWAS energy policies for more quantifiable impact (Criterion 1) in terms of low carbon transition.
• At both national and regional levels, we propose the strengthening of existing monitoring frameworks that can specifically address the issue of improving national data collection systems that would facilitate collaboration and sharing of information among countries. This would also facilitate scientific research at the national and international level for the benefit of the region.