Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure and Energy Resources: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure
- Battery electric vehicle;
- Hybrid electric vehicles;
- Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles;
- Fuel cell electric vehicles.
2.1. Battery Electric Vehicles
2.2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles
2.3. Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
2.4. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
2.5. Classification of Charging Infrastructure Based on Location-of-Charge
2.5.1. Home/Residential/Private Facilities
2.5.2. Semi-Public Facilities
2.5.3. Public Facilities
2.6. Classification of Charging Infrastructure Based on Charging/Refueling Technology
2.6.1. Wired Electric Vehicle Charging
2.6.2. Wireless Electric Vehicle Charging
Advances in Electric Vehicle Wireless Charging
Classifications of Wireless Charging Models in the Literature
- Optimal allocation and sizing of charging stations;
- Power electronics;
- Communications;
- Optimal scheduling and routing.
2.6.3. Battery Swapping Infrastructure
2.6.4. Hydrogen Refueling Infrastructure
3. Energy Resources for EV Applications
3.1. Lead Acid
3.2. Nickel-Based
3.2.1. Nickel Cadmium
3.2.2. Nickel Metal Hydride
3.3. Lithium-Ion
3.4. Hydrogen Fuel Cell
4. Future Outlook and Insight
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of EV | Popular Examples of EVs |
---|---|
BEV | Tesla Model 3, Tesla Model X, Tesla Model S, Model Y, Chevrolet Bolt, Audi e-tron, Nissan Leaf, Kia Niro Electric |
HEV | Toyota Prius, Audi A3, Kia Niro |
PHEV | Volt, Mini Cooper SE, Volvo V60, Prius Prime, Volvo S60, Kia Niro Plug-in Hybrid |
FCEV | Honda Clarity, Toyota Mirai, Tucson |
Charging Time | Level | Voltage Level (V) | Power Level (kW) | Maximum Current (A) |
---|---|---|---|---|
PHEV: 7 h (0–full charge) BEV: 17 h (20%–full charge) | 1 | 120 120 | 1.4 1.9 | 12 16 |
PEV: 3 h (0–full charge) BEV: 7 h (20%–full charge) | 2 | 208–240 | 3.3 | ≤80 |
PEV: 3 h (0–full charge) BEV: 7 h (20%–full charge) | 208–240 | 7 | ||
PEV: 3 h (0–full charge) BEV: 7 h (20%–full charge) | 20 | |||
3 * | 240 (1-phase), or 3-phase | >20 | >80 |
Charging Time | Level | Voltage Level (V) | Power Level (kW) | Maximum Current (A) |
---|---|---|---|---|
PHEV: 22 min (0–80%) BEV: 1.2 h (20%–full charge) | 1 | 200–450 | ≤36 | 80 |
PHEV: 10 min (0–80%) BEV: 20 min (20%–full charge) | 2 | 200–450 | ≤90 | ≤200 |
BEV: <10 min | 3 | 200–600 | 240 | ≤400 |
Connector Type | Level | Locations Used | Charging Speeds | Range Added per Hour |
---|---|---|---|---|
J1771, Tesla | 1(AC) | Homes, offices, public areas | 3–5 miles/h | 3–5 miles |
J1771, Tesla | 2(AC) | Homes, offices, public areas | 12–80 miles/h | 12–80 miles |
Combined charging system (Combo), CHAdeMO, Tesla, GB/T | 3(DC) | Public areas | 3–20 miles/min | 75–1200 miles |
Standard | Regions Mainly Used | Key Manufacturers | Examples of EVs |
---|---|---|---|
Tesla Superchargers | Used by Tesla vehicles only | Tesla | Model 3, Model S, Model X |
CCS | US, Europe, other parts of the world | BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Audi, Porsche, Ford, Volkswagen | Audi e-tron, BMW i3, Chevrolet Bolt, Honda Clarity, Hyundai Kona, Jaguar I-PACE, Kia Niro, Volkswagen e-Golf |
CHAdeMO | Japan | Nissan, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Subaru | Kia Soul, Nissan LEAF, Nissan LEAF Plus |
GB/T | China | SAIC Dongfeng, Geely, Chana, Chery, GAC, FAW, BAIC, BYW | All Chinese-made EVs |
Country | Number of Slow Chargers | Number of Fast Chargers 1 |
---|---|---|
China | 680,000 | 470,000 |
United States | 92,000 | 22,000 |
Netherlands | 80,000 | 2600 |
France | 50,000 | 4500 |
Germany | 40,000 | 9200 |
United Kingdom | 30,000 | 7700 |
South Korea | 90,000 | 15,000 |
Classification | Objective | References |
---|---|---|
Optimal allocation and sizing of EV charging stations | Minimize cost between power transmitter allocation and battery size | [6] |
Minimize total losses, maximize DG | [44] | |
EV charging station, and ESS penetration | [49] | |
Minimize battery, inverter, and cable costs | [43] | |
Optimal scheduling and routing | Maximize the total residual energy | [50] |
Minimize system operating costs for wireless electric bus system | [1] | |
Routing algorithm to extend battery longevity and driving range | [51] | |
Minimize energy consumption of Evs | [52] | |
A review | [53] | |
Communication | Communication between wired and wireless charging systems through IoT | [31] |
Mobile edge computing model for predicting charging station availability | [54] | |
Coordinated communication framework for EV charging management | [55] | |
Power electronics | Optimal coil design | [56,57] |
Type | Energy Density | Cycle Life (Cycles) | Cost USD/kWh | Self-Discharge Rate (%/Month) | Charging/Discharging Efficiency | Nominal Cell Voltage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lead acid | 35–40 Wh/kg 80–90 Wh/L [72] | 1500–5000 [72] | 150–200 | 3–20 [77] | 50–95% [78] | 2.1 V [79] |
Lithium-ion | 150–180 Wh/kg 300–350 Wh/L [72] | 1000–5000 | 600–800 [72] | 0.35–2.5 [80] | 80–90% [81] | 3.6/3.7/3.8/3.85 V |
Nickel-cadmium | 50–150 Wh/L | 2000 | 400–1000 [66,71] | 10 | 70–90% [81] | 1.2 V |
Nickel metal hydride | 140–300 Wh/L | 180–2000 [69,70] | 83–400 [66,72] | 13.9–70.7 at room temp. 36.4–97.8 at 45 °C | 66–92% [82,83] | 1.2 V |
Fuel cell (PEM) | 112.2–770 kWh/m3 [84] | 70–13,000 [84] | 35–45% [75] 60% [14] | 1.2 V [85] |
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Aduama, P.; Al-Sumaiti, A.S.; Al-Hosani, K.H. Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure and Energy Resources: A Review. Energies 2023, 16, 1965. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041965
Aduama P, Al-Sumaiti AS, Al-Hosani KH. Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure and Energy Resources: A Review. Energies. 2023; 16(4):1965. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041965
Chicago/Turabian StyleAduama, Prince, Ameena S. Al-Sumaiti, and Khalifa H. Al-Hosani. 2023. "Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure and Energy Resources: A Review" Energies 16, no. 4: 1965. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041965
APA StyleAduama, P., Al-Sumaiti, A. S., & Al-Hosani, K. H. (2023). Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure and Energy Resources: A Review. Energies, 16(4), 1965. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041965