A Review of Powertrain Electrification for Greener Aircraft
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Literature Review on Electrically Propelled Aircraft
1.2. Main Issues in the Review
2. Context of Electrically Propelled Aircraft
2.1. Potential Benefits in Terms of Engine Optimization, Aerodynamics, and Energy Efficiency
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- The first benefit is related to the thermal engine design, as illustrated in Figure 7a, due to the degrees of freedom offered by the hybrid architectures. Indeed, the electric power boost capability can be useful in particular operation zones; it allows for optimizing the engine design with respect to conventional propulsion, where the gas turbine alone propels the aircraft.
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- Secondly, Figure 7 illustrates the aerodynamic benefits, which are studied in many projects but are not detailed in the examples of Section 3 and Section 4. However, distributed propulsion introduces, in the first place, potential gains allowing a reduction in wing surface (thus decreasing drag in flight) via the concept of “blown wing”, as proposed, for example, by NASA [11] and ONERA [12,13]. This concept consists, during the landing phase, of increasing the lift thanks to the blast effect caused by the distributed electric propellers. The high dynamics of electrically powered propellers also suggest the possibility of eliminating or reducing the rear vertical plane (reduction in weight and drag) via the concept of “differential thrust” [10]. Finally, some studies suggest that vortex effects can be reduced by adding propellers at the wingtips, for example, in the X57 concept [11]. Overall, coupling all aerodynamic benefits, Thauvin [10] estimates a net reduction of 15–20% in fuel consumption for a regional aircraft.
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- Finally, energy benefits due to hybrid-electric-powertrain optimization will be especially detailed in the example of Section 3. The example of Section 4 presents a typical hybrid architecture that mainly suppresses power electronics, thus obtaining energy gains by reducing the powertrain weight. These “energy gains” are the result of the trade-off between weight reduction and powertrain efficiency including the gas turbine operation over the flight mission. Indeed, increasing the efficiency of each conversion stage implies a reduced energy demand of the upstream stages in the propulsion chain, offering subsequent weight gains. Moreover, in the case of hybrid systems combining a main thermal source, typically a gas turbine, and auxiliary electrical sources (batteries or fuel cells), it is possible to reduce the fuel burn through a power management optimization of both sources to avoid operating the thermal engines in very-high-consuming regimes obtained at low power operation, as displayed in Figure 7c. Specific flight sequences such as taxiing or descent can thus be advantageously “electrified”.
2.2. Hybrid-Electric and Full-Electric Architectures
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- Parallel hybrid architecture: In this structure, the conventional thermal engine is assisted by the eMotor during high-fuel-consumption-demand phases (low propulsive power demand), exactly as in an electric car. The weight addition due to the powertrain electrification is minimized compared to that of other hybrid architectures, and it was found in [10] to be the most promising in terms of fuel burn reduction rate. For example, the AMPAIRE start-up [55] built a prototype of a hybrid-electric parallel aircraft, which ran until its fly tests in California in 2019.
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- Series hybrid architecture: With 100% electric propulsion, like “Turboelectric” and “All Electric” solutions, this structure is highly compelling and involves the most ambitious technological breakthroughs, involving high-power devices (cables, electric machines, power electronics) and “ultra HVDC bus voltage standards” with subsequent issues in terms of insulation (partial discharges) in aircraft environments, especially at low pressures. This is a reason why Airbus, as the topic leader in the EU Clean Sky 2 “HASTECS” project, has chosen to retain this architecture for a regional aircraft case study; this example is detailed in Section 3. Many other projects have made the same choice, starting with the American start-up Zunum Aero [56], supported by Boeing, that develops a family of series hybrid-electric small regional aircraft, the first being the ZA10 which is able to transport 10 Pax flying over a range of 600 nm. The aircraft concept uses either all-electric or hybrid-electric modes to extend the flight range. In cooperation with SAFRAN, which has provided a 500 kW gas turbine collected from an existing helicopter, the powertrain concept can switch either to an all-electric or a hybrid-electric powertrain to extend the aircraft mission. The series hybrid-electric propulsion can also be applied to VTOL and STOL (vertical and short take-off and landing aircraft) as for the Bell NEXUS [57]. Here, hybridization is necessary to extend the fight range.
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- The “SPPH” (series-parallel partial-hybrid) powertrain is an intermediate concept between series and parallel hybrid architectures. A turboshaft engine partly powers a generator that feeds electric motors driving propellers, which distribute thrust along the wings. The latter is associated with storage batteries. The aircraft thrust is generated both by electric and thermal engines; the French start-up “Cassio”, with Voltaero, and the “Ecopulse” project, comprising Daher, Safran, and Airbus, are among this family of concepts.
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- All-electric and zero-emission architecture: Flying all-electric powertrain is far from easy. Several concepts and prototypes have been proposed, starting with Siemens and its “Extra 330” concept, with an aircraft speed beyond 340 km/h. It especially embeds a very high specific power electric motor [58]. Such a specific power of 5 kW/kg has never been reached for an aircraft electric motor. Beyond that, Eviation is a young company in Israel that is also studying a full-electric concept. Their aircraft, able to transport nine pax by means of its 800 kW electric propulsion and powered by lithium-ion batteries, was presented at the Paris Air Show in 2019. Alongside these new generations of aircraft, VTOL and STOL aircraft are also in the “all-electric race”. Airbus has also proposed its “City Airbus”, a four-seat multi-copter concept. The market for VTOL and STOL aircraft is rapidly growing; aircraft manufacturers want to relieve road traffic congestion and make it more fluid. However, considering the limitations of battery-specific energy for current and medium-term solutions, the range of all-electric aircraft is still very limited. Thauvin [10] studied technology targets by assessing the required battery-specific energy to get an aircraft off the ground and have it fly over a certain range depending on its maximum take-off weight (MTOW) and its performance-level assessment. The technological assessment related to these entry-into-service (EIS) targets is summarized in Table 2. In Figure 11, based on the example of a 30-ton (t) MTOW (blue curves), a 100 nm (nautical miles) full-electric flight appears to be achievable with the battery technology prediction of “EIS2025” (EIS in 2025 with 280 Wh/kg for battery-specific energy target), while, in the longer term, the battery technology of “EIS2030+” (EIS beyond 2030 with 380 Wh/kg for battery-specific energy target) would enable the all-electric aircraft to fly nearly 200 nm, which is still strongly limited.
2.3. Electrified Powertrain Is Heavier Than Conventional Thermal Ones But “Technology Sensitive”
2.4. Literature Review on “Power Electronic-Less”-Electric and Hybrid-Electric Architectures
3. “HASTECS”, a Series Hybrid-Electric Powertrain for Regional Aircraft: From Technological Optimization to the MDO of the Whole Powertrain
3.1. The HASTECS Project
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- Prospects towards high-energy-density batteries and fuel cells [52];
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3.2. Local Optimization of Power Electronics
3.3. Local Optimization of the Electromechanical Actuator with Partial Discharge Tolerance
3.4. Prospective State of the Art and Modelling of High-Energy-Density Batteries vs. Fuel Cells
3.5. MDO of the Whole Hybrid-Electric Powertrain
3.5.1. On the MDO Process Formulation
3.5.2. Optimization of the Whole Powertrain
- (1)
- A “local optimization” focusing on the eMotor weight minimization: in this case, other powertrain devices are considered with fixed ratings and the snowball effect is involved;
- (2)
- A first global optimization minimizing the whole electric powertrain weight;
- (3)
- A second global optimization minimizing the fuel burn of the overall hybrid-electric aircraft.
3.6. Final Trade-Off on Fuel Burn vs. Embedded Weight with Hybrid-Electric Architecture
4. “Power Electronic-Less” AC Architecture Stabilized by Hybridization: Another Solution for Electric Powertrain Weight Decrease
4.1. A “Power Electronic-Less” AC Architecture for Aircraft Propulsion
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- At the system input, the gas turbine controls the mechanical speed of the generator, then the AC bus frequency.
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- At the system output (propeller side), pitch control of blades adjusts the propulsive thrust with respect to the blade rotation speed.
4.2. Stability Analysis of a “Power Electronic-Less” AC-Coupled Power Channel
- High stator inductances;
- Low electromotive forces (proportional to magnetic fluxes);
- High inertia of the motor set.
4.3. Power Hybridization of the Direct AC-Coupled Power Channel for Stable Operation
4.4. Control of the Hybridization Branch for System Stabilization
5. Conclusions and Future Directions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Car | Train | Ship | Aircraft | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urban | Rural Road | Motorway 150 km/h | Local Service | Switching | Urban Transport | Container | Passenger Ferry | Regional 200 nm | |
PHP (%) | 94 | 85 | 74 | 65 | 83 | 91 | 43 | 63 | 33 |
EHP (mHz) | 66 | 30 | 12 | 3 | 29 | 20 | n/a | n/a | 0.22 |
EIS 2025 | EIS 2030+ | ||
---|---|---|---|
Electric machine | Specific power Efficiency | 7 kW/kg 96% | 11 kW/kg 98.5% |
Power Electronics | Specific power | 15 kW/kg 99% | 20 kW/kg 99.5% |
Battery | Specific energy Max charge/discharge (C rate) Efficiency | 280 Wh/kg 2/5 90% | 380 Wh/kg 2/5 95% |
Cables | DC bus voltage | 540 V | 1500 V |
2025 Target | 2035 Target | 20XX Target | |
eMotor/eGenerator | |||
SP + cooling Efficiency | 5 kW/kg 96% | 10 kW/kg 98.5% | 15 kW/kg 99% |
Power Electronics | |||
SP + cooling Efficiency | 15 kW/kg 98% | 25 kW/kg 99.5% | 35 kW/kg 99.8% |
Fuel Cell—Liquid H2 | |||
Auxiliary Stack | 3.3 kWh/kg 1.3 kW/kg 4 kW/kg | ||
DC Bus | |||
Ultra | 2000 V |
LTO | NMC Solid State | FC System with Liquid H2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Perspectives (5–10 years) | Cell level | ~180–200 Wh/kg | ~650 Wh/kg | ~1000 Wh/kg |
System level | ~100 Wh/kg | ~325 Wh/kg | ~560 Wh/kg |
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Roboam, X. A Review of Powertrain Electrification for Greener Aircraft. Energies 2023, 16, 6831. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16196831
Roboam X. A Review of Powertrain Electrification for Greener Aircraft. Energies. 2023; 16(19):6831. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16196831
Chicago/Turabian StyleRoboam, Xavier. 2023. "A Review of Powertrain Electrification for Greener Aircraft" Energies 16, no. 19: 6831. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16196831
APA StyleRoboam, X. (2023). A Review of Powertrain Electrification for Greener Aircraft. Energies, 16(19), 6831. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16196831