Renewable Energy Management in European Union Member States

Abstract

This article presents information on energy carriers from renewable sources and their share in the energy balance of the European Union Member States. The subject is extremely dynamic, and this field is still developing. The European Union is constantly implementing new programs to help Europe go green. Based on the analysis of statistical data, the scale and manner of using energy from renewable sources in each of the EU Member States have been presented and compared. The article also presents indicators of the share of total and sectoral energy from renewable sources in gross final energy consumption, monitoring the implementation of EU commitments.

1. Introduction

Renewable energy is becoming a lifesaver for the ever-growing demand for it, with the hope that (by definition) it will not run out. Renewable energy sources (RESs) in today’s world provide protection against the increasing level of air pollution. The non-renewable energy sources used by society, such as coal, are running out, and the cost of obtaining them is increasing year by year. The issue of using non-renewable energy resources for heating and their negative impact on the environment is confirmed not only by science but also by political decisions [1]. The growing awareness of the public and governments in the field of air protection and care for the future of the Earth and humanity finds its justification in the created programs of assistance and funding for the use of alternative sources, which undoubtedly include renewable energy. The priority of the European Union (EU) is the fight against climate change, and RESs are becoming the way forward. Naturally sourced energy means energy that comes from nature.

The European Union has defined energy strategies for a more secure, sustainable and low-carbon economy. In addition to combating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the use of renewable energy sources can help to increase the security and diversity of energy supplies, reduce air pollution, as well as create job opportunities in sectors related to environmental protection and renewable energy.

The approach of simultaneously developing the economy and technology, while at the same time being environmentally conscious, involves a huge amount of work in terms of regulation and implementation. The problems caused by increasing greenhouse gas emissions are leading to stricter environmental regulations, which in turn are forcing the search for new solutions [2].

The EU’s support for the implementation of new solutions and the possibility to procure “clean” energy from renewable sources enable renewable energy technology to reach Member States more quickly. The support framework is based on the original Directive 2009/28/EC [3] on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, under which each Member State had to meet individual national targets by 2020 for the share of energy from renewable sources. These goals were in line with the overall EU target, which assumed the achievement of a minimum of 20% of the energy obtained from RES. It should be pointed out that the objectives of the European Union go beyond 2020 and are increasingly ambitious. According to the new strategy, the Union’s goal is to put both the economy and society on a new track toward greater sustainability. The effect is to be visible by 2050, when Europe is to become the first climate-neutral continent.

The ubiquitous decarbonization of environmental policy imposes several obligations on Member States to reduce emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. The environmental policy of the European Union has had a huge impact on shaping the direction of development of the EU Member States for many years. Nowadays, this policy is based on the principles of equal access to knowledge and actions aimed at exclusive care for the environment. The European Union encourages states to expand the legal boundaries of environmental protection and to cultivate the power to enforce them.

In 2019, the share of energy from renewable sources in the final energy consumption in the EU-28 countries and Poland amounted to 10.2% and 11.6%, respectively. In the years 2016–2019, there was an increase of 1.0 percentage point for the EU-28, and in the case of Poland, by 3.5 percentage points [4]. Obtaining energy from RES in Poland has its origin in the topography of the land. The geographical conditions of Poland allow for the accumulation of large amounts of solid biofuels and wind energy.

The evolution of the EU environmental policy should be considered due to the fact that the demand for energy is still growing. Investments in the acquisition of renewable energy sources are very expensive, and the payback period is expected. It is impossible to consider the evolution of environmental policy outside the context of today’s changes in the world. The ongoing war in Ukraine verified the accessibility of countries to energy and the cost of obtaining it. Russia, along with Norway and Algeria, is the main supplier of gas to the EU countries [5] (p. 4). The war in Ukraine continues to test the state’s dependence on Russian gas. Independence from it can be achieved through RES. Replacing gas is inevitable, and following the voice of European politics, the most profitable direction seems to be the choice of renewable energy. The war that has been going on since 2022 has pushed people to develop technologies and broadly understood investments to collect energy from renewable sources. The prospect of such a rapid development of RES allows us to hope that the abandonment of coal will come naturally in the next few years.

The European Union, recognized as a promoter of the idea of sustainable development and upholding the protection of the Earth’s climate, requires eco-efficient solutions. However, their implementation requires financial outlays. Member States that are not among the leading economic powers will find themselves in a difficult financial situation [6] (p. 139).

EU bodies uphold compliance with EU law in order to maintain high environmental protection by Member States. They have committed to respecting it; otherwise, EU policy has adopted dissuasive criminal sanctions for crimes against nature. These include, for example, illegal emission or release of substances into the air, water or soil; illegal trade in wildlife species; illegal trade in substances that deplete the ozone layer; and illegal movement or dumping of waste. It is also worth mentioning the European Commission’s reviews, which are organized to control the implementation of EU environmental regulations. Their assessment is aimed at cultivating and improving behaviors supporting the protection of the Earth’s climate.

The EU also runs the European Earth observation program (Copernicus). The idea is to provide data from satellite observations on land, sea, atmosphere and climate change. There is also a similar register for pollutants released into air, water and soil—the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR). This register is a source of key environmental data from over 30,000 industrial plants in the European Union.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Theoretical Considerations on Renewable Energy

In Polish legislation, renewable energy sources are defined as “renewable, non-fossil energy sources, including wind energy, solar energy, aerothermal energy, geothermal energy, hydrothermal energy, hydropower, wave, current and tidal energy, energy obtained from biomass, biogas, agricultural biogas and bioliquids” [7]. Renewable energy is often referred to as clean energy. It is energy that comes from natural sources or processes that are constantly replenished, such as sunlight and wind, which continue to shine and blow even though their availability varies with time, season and weather. Thus, renewable energy is energy from natural sources that replenish themselves at a faster rate than they are consumed. The benefits of using RESs balance or even exceed their initial maintenance costs [5] (p. 1).

The most popular and well-known renewable energy among the public is the energy obtained from the sun. “The amount of solar energy is ten thousand times greater than the consumption of fossil fuel energy by all the countries of the world. Solar energy is the greatest source of energy available to man. Almost all energy (99%) is generated in the core of the Sun. The source of solar radiation energy is the nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei. Electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of the Sun propagates in space in all directions” [8] (p. 3). This explains the statement that solar energy is at the forefront of RESs in terms of availability and volume.

Solar energy can be used in two ways—to produce heat or electricity. The production of thermal energy is possible thanks to solar collectors that absorb solar energy and convert it into thermal energy. The heat energy then goes to the non-freezing medium that flows through the pipe system. From here, it goes to the coil that heats the utility water in the building. On the other hand, photovoltaics, which are very popular, especially in Poland, are used to produce electricity. This system is based on cells made of a semiconductor material (usually silicon), which acquires solar radiation energy and generates a direct current. Solar panels should be properly adjusted to obtain the best installation performance. This means the need to take into account the latitude and the use of solar collectors [9]. Then, the energy goes to the inverter, which converts it into alternating current, i.e., one that can be used, for example, to power devices at home [10]. However, it should be emphasized that the storage of solar energy poses some problems.

Wind energy is derived from the temperature differences between air masses caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun. The use of wind energy is based on the operation of wind turbines. The wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy. Wind energy rotates the turbine blades, which power an electric generator and produce electricity. The main country associated with the use of wind energy is the Netherlands. It is worth noting that the use of wind turbines has an impact on the natural landscape, but the inexhaustibility of wind energy remains the overriding factor in their use. Due to Poland’s topography, the conditions for harnessing wind energy are very good, with as much as 1/3 of the country having favorable terrain for this [11] (p. 7). According to the report of the Polish Society for the Transmission and Distribution of Electricity, in 2021, onshore wind farms had the largest share in the production of energy from RES. The wind turbines provided as much as 16.5 TWh, i.e., 54% of all energy generated by renewable sources, while satisfying almost 1/10 of the national electricity demand. According to the Electricity Market, 46 new wind turbines will be operational by August 2022, with a total capacity of 366.59 MW. At the very beginning of this year, wind turbines set a record by providing 30–35% of Poland’s energy needs. In terms of households, this means that all Polish homes were using green energy at the time.

Hydropower is another example of RES. Hydropower uses the energy of water moving from higher to lower altitudes and can be generated from reservoirs and rivers. Reservoir hydropower plants rely on water stored in a reservoir, while run-of-the-river hydropower plants use energy from the available river flow. Water energy can be called hydropower, where water energy is converted into electricity or used directly as a turbine. Kinetic energy comes from the flow of rivers, and mechanical energy comes from the movement of oceans [11] (p. 5).

The penultimate energy listed as RES is energy from the Earth, otherwise known as geothermal energy. Water vapor is the carrier of energy inside our planet. Of course, the most energy is obtained near volcanoes and in seismically active areas. The most common uses of geothermal energy are swimming pools, heat pumps and district heating. By harnessing the natural heat below the earth’s surface, geothermal energy can be used to heat homes directly or to generate electricity. Geothermal energy is one of the most difficult sources of renewable energy to obtain—primarily due to the fact that the deposits are located deep underground (up to several kilometers deep). Resources are extracted by means of boreholes from which hot water or steam is drawn.

The last energy source is biomass. It is the use of raw materials such as wood, straw and municipal waste and obtaining energy by burning it in special biomass furnaces. Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals and includes crops, wood waste and trees. In the EU, biomass is now one of the main sources of renewable energy for heat and power production [12]. The energy produced by burning biomass causes greenhouse gas emissions but at a lower level than burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil or gas. However, it should be noted that bioenergy should only be used on a limited scale, given the potential negative environmental impacts associated with the growth of forests and large-scale bioenergy plantations and the resulting deforestation and land use change. The automotive market and the opportunities arising from the production of biofuel engines should be mentioned. Today’s advanced technology has allowed the construction of an engine for rapeseed oil—but it has not displaced traditional combustion engines to the detriment of people and the environment.

Renewable energy sources are energy carriers whose use does not cause irreversible losses or deficits of this source in the environment. Renewable energy resources are constantly replenishing themselves and are not being depleted. In addition, the process of their replenishment can occur spontaneously and naturally, which means that no human intervention is required to “renew the resource”.

The opposite of renewables is fossil fuels—coal, oil and gas—which are non-renewable resources. They take hundreds of millions of years to form. These are sources that regenerate very slowly or not at all. Fossil fuels burned to generate energy cause harmful emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. From year to year, there are noticeable changes in the law in order to reduce their burning. Narrowing restrictions on their extraction and burning is intended to protect the planet from their harmful effects. Currently, the noticeable popularity of the use of RES is not able to completely reduce this impact; e.g., Poland, due to its own coal resources, will not be able to completely abandon its use. Renewable energy sources are, therefore, an alternative to fossil fuels. Obtaining energy produced from renewable sources has a lesser negative impact on the environment than the use of fossil fuels. First of all, the use of RES reduces the emission of greenhouse gases and other harmful substances. In addition, renewables allow for the diversification of energy supplies and reduce dependence on uncertain and volatile markets for fossil fuels, especially oil and gas.

2.2. EU Policy towards RES

The European Union (the EU) is responsible for many areas of activity of the Member States. Established strategies and directions of development include, among others: aspects related to foreign policy. The EU also has the mandate to act in all environmental policy areas, such as air and water pollution, waste management and climate change [13]. Due to the fact that many countries do not meet the climate goals of the Paris Agreement, the European Union is forced to act more decisively and use all possible technologies against carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere [11]. The EU environmental policy has been shaping the development of climate change monitoring activities for many years. The EU policy aims to maintain high air quality, protect human life and ensure controlled exploitation of natural resources.

The increase in energy consumption is related to the global development of science and technology [14] (p. 2). The policy of the European Union in the field of promoting renewable energy sources has evolved significantly over the last dozen or so years. Environmental policies often promote the use of alternative fuels to reduce emissions and diversify energy sources [15]. The unification of eco-societies of the European Union with the emergence of new industries, such as economy 4.0 or 5.0 and the labor market, takes place in the educational process [8]. The first directive focused on RES was adopted in 2009. It stipulates that by 2020, 20% of the total energy consumption in all EU Member States must come from renewable sources. An additional goal was to achieve a 10% share of RES fuels in the transport sector. As part of assistance in achieving the adopted goals, a number of mechanisms were defined that could be used by member states, including various types of support schemes, implementation of joint projects and cooperation between Member States and third countries.

It should be emphasized that the target of 20% energy consumption from RES adopted in the directive was common to all EU members [3]. This means that each Member State has set its own national renewable energy targets. These goals were determined based on the country’s starting point, as well as taking into account the overall potential for the use of RES. On the basis of these criteria, a target of 10% of energy from renewable sources was set in Malta, 15% in Poland and 49% in Sweden [16]. In addition, each country had to define how it intended to achieve its individual target, and progress towards these targets was measured every two years as part of the preparation of national renewable energy progress reports. The rapidly growing RES sector entails challenges and problems that may slow down the implementation of a long-term energy strategy, and each country will have to deal with it on its own [17].

In 2018, the “Clean Energy for All Europeans” package was adopted, under which a new binding target was established for all Member States, according to which, by 2030, the energy consumed in the EU should be obtained in at least 32% from renewable sources [18]. This package was also supposed to guarantee maintaining the Union’s position as a world leader in the use of renewable energy sources. As part of individual targets, Member States were to propose new ten-year national energy and climate plans under the “Horizon 2030” program, which were to ensure that national targets were consistent with the overall EU targets.

The European Green Deal document, which was published in 2019, presents assumptions that Europe will become a climate-neutral continent by 2050 [19]. This goal is to be achieved by providing clean, safe and affordable energy. On the other hand, the 2021 package for the implementation of the European Green Deal presents a new target of 40% energy consumption from renewable sources by 2030 [20]. EU countries are working on new legislation to achieve this goal and make the EU climate-neutral by 2050, which is named „Fit for 55”. It refers to the EU’s target of reducing net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030. The proposed package aims to bring EU legislation in line with the 2030 goal. A new self-standing emissions trading system is created for buildings, road transport and fuels for additional sectors [21].

The main objectives of the Green Deal Strategy include delivering clean and safe energy, implementing a circular economy, designing buildings with lower energy demands, accelerating the transition to sustainable and smart mobility and protecting and restoring the world’s ecosystems and biodiversity. The strategy was created as a result of the ever-growing threat of global pollution and environmental degradation. The year 2019 was also extremely difficult due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Green Deal strategy also combines plans to rebuild the economy after the negative effects of the pandemic.

Based on the above considerations, the European Union is constantly developing and updating legislation on renewable energy sources. Over the last dozen years or so, significant packages have been developed that concern the promotion of clean energy and set ever higher and more ambitious goals to be achieved. Figure 1 shows the goals set by the European Union in the issued directives on the use of energy from renewable sources.

The EU Commission launched the REPowerPlan in May 2022 in response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. It aims to save energy, produce clean energy and diversify its energy supplies [22]. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has caused fuel prices to rise. The EU’s REPowerPlan is helping to normalize fuel prices, thus bringing back transport and stabilizing product prices.

As shown on Figure 2 the plan is to reduce energy supplies from Russia while concluding agreements with third countries on imports. New partnerships with countries such as Nafmibia, Egypt and Kazakhstan will allow Europe to sustainably supply fuels.

3. Results

Use of RES in EU Countries

• Gross final energy consumption

Based on the statistical data provided by the Member States, it should be noted that the EU exceeded its 2020 target, reaching the share of 22.1% of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption. The overall share of energy from renewable sources has been increasing on average by 0.8 percentage points per year since 2011, with a much larger increase of 2.2 percentage points in 2019–2020 (Scheme 1) [4].

• Share of energy from renewable sources in individual sectors

When analyzing the share of energy from renewable sources in individual sectors, it should be noted that in 2020, the largest share of RES was recorded in the electricity sector (RES-E), where it reached the level of 37.5%. This sector saw an increase of 2 percentage points between 2018 and 2019 and an increase of 3.4 percentage points from 2019 to 2020. Another sector in which the share of renewable energy sources was 23.1% is the heating and cooling sector (RES-H&C). This sector has grown by 5.7 percentage points over the last ten years. The last analyzed sector was transport (RES-T), in which the share of RES in 2020 reached 10.2%. Among the analyzed sectors, the transport sector was characterized by the lowest dynamics and slower development (Scheme 2) [4].

• Use of renewable sources

However, the use of renewable energy in 2020 varies between Member States. One of the reasons for these divergences is the different starting positions of each country, resulting in different national targets being set for each Member State in the Renewable Energy Directive (Figure 3).

The highest share of energy from renewable sources in 2020 was recorded in Sweden (60.1%), followed by Finland (43.8%) and Latvia (42.1%). In turn, the lowest shares of renewable energy were recorded in Malta (10.7%) and Luxembourg (11.7%). However, it should be pointed out that despite such a low total share of renewable energy, both Malta and Luxembourg increased their share of RES from 2019 to 2020 by 2.5 percentage points and 4.7 percentage points, respectively, resulting in the achievement of the national RES targets [14].

It is also worth emphasizing that all Member States, except for France, exceeded a share equal to the targets for the share of energy from renewable sources for 2020 set out in the Renewable Energy Directive [14]. This effect was achieved both by the use of national implementation mechanisms and by statistical transfers. Statistical transfers are agreements between Member States to transfer a certain amount of energy from renewable sources from one Member State to another for a specified price. These transfers are recognized in Directive 2009/28/EC [3] as one of the mechanisms of cooperation between EU countries.

• Share of energy from renewable sources in Poland

For comparison, according to data for 2020, Poland, as an EU Member State, uses solid biofuels to the highest extent. The figure below (Scheme 3) presents the types of RES acquisition in Poland:

In 2020, Poland was the largest user of energy from biofuels [11] (p. 2). According to the attached illustration, the least-used source of renewable energy in Poland was geothermal energy, which is understandable due to the geographical features of Poland. Scheme 4 shows the final gross consumption of renewable energy in 2016–2020.

Gross final energy consumption from renewable sources increased from 493,323 TJ in 2019 to 499,338 TJ in 2020 [11] (p. 2). Looking ahead, it is certain that the ever-growing popularity of using RES for energy consumption will be characterized by a greater share of the final consumers.

The evolution of the EU’s environmental policy should be considered one of its most important aspects—the ever-increasing demand for energy. Investments in the acquisition of renewable energy sources are very expensive and take years to recoup. It is impossible to consider the evolution of environmental policy outside the context of today’s changes in the world. The ongoing war in Ukraine has verified the accessibility of countries to energy and the cost of obtaining it. Russia, along with Norway and Algeria, is the main supplier of gas to the EU countries [5] (p. 4). Changes in ecological policy put Poland in a difficult situation because Poland is a country dependent on coal power and has the largest number of employees in the coal sector [24].

As Jeżowski wrote about the EU: “it is the defender of the Earth’s climate and the leader of RES (and as such) imposes ever higher and more ambitious ecological, climate and efficiency requirements on the energy sector” [6] (p.139). However, the EU is putting Member States on the verge of a financial problem. Costs related to the restructuring of energy sectors may put countries with less liquidity in a difficult situation and require support from other countries, thus creating further financial dependencies.

Europe has high hopes that the promoted solutions will bring results in terms of reducing exhaust emissions. The number of permits issued for carbon dioxide emissions is decreasing year by year. Europe is holding the Member States to their promises, whether they like it or not.

4. Conclusions

Progressive climate change on Earth requires a transformation of policy in response to the challenges of the modern world.

Based on the presented arguments, the following final conclusions can be drawn:

• Renewable energy has many potential benefits—reduced greenhouse gas emissions, diversification of energy supply and reduced dependence on fossil fuel markets.
• RES are displacing traditional fossil fuels in many sectors of the economy.
• Not all energy sources perceived as “renewable” are environmentally beneficial. Biomass and large hydroelectric dams make difficult trade-offs when considering impacts on wildlife, climate change and other issues. It should be noted that any research on the magnitude of the role of bioenergy in times of climate pollution is an important step in reducing the amount of this pollution [25].
• No increase in temperature means drastic changes in the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions in the world, thereby triggering changes in energy systems [26].
• The previous approach of only reducing emissions will be replaced by the complete elimination of the production of exhaust fumes released into the environment. The EU’s ever-improving environmental policy will become an important element in the eco-politics of countries that are aware of and concerned about the common good, which includes the state of the Earth.
• The modification of green policies through modernization and planned subsidies from the European Union funds is intended to prevent the consequences of the broadly understood neglect of restructuring the eco-politics of the Member States.
• The analysis of statistical data shows that the Member States use renewable energy sources to a different extent. These differences result from internal political regulations and the local capacity of a given country.
• The structure of obtaining energy from renewable sources in the EU countries results primarily from the geographical conditions and the resources available in each country.

The article presents a number of factors influencing the development of the field of renewable energy sources and the need for changes in this sector.

It is worth emphasizing, however, that despite the differences in the use of RES, the Member States act within the framework of a common goal set by the European Union. The first goal set by the Union for 2020 has been achieved. Moreover, all countries except one, France, have met their national targets for the share of energy from renewable sources. These results show that both the European Union as a whole and individual Member States are motivated to shift the economy toward more sustainable solutions and that the goal of achieving climate neutrality for Europe is achievable.