The Impact of System Integration on System Costs of a Neighborhood Energy and Water System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Motivation
1.2. Literature Research
1.3. Focus of the Study
- -
- Consider 100% renewable systems, so excluding fossil sources, such as natural gas;
- -
- Taking into account multiple consumption sectors in a neighborhood (electricity, heating of buildings, mobility and water);
- -
- Hydrogen can be used for more purposes than electricity only, as it can also be applied in both the transport sector and for buildings (heating and electricity purposes);
- -
- Seasonal heat storage can contribute considerably to the large seasonal, temporal mismatch.
What is the impact of different modes of system integration on the local energy and water use, energy imports and exports, peaks in demand and supply and system costs for a neighborhood energy and water system?
2. Modeling Methodology
2.1. Rule-Based Scheduling Strategy
2.2. Economic Calculations
3. Neighborhood Scenarios
3.1. Design Choices
3.2. All-Electric
3.3. All-Electric H2
3.4. H2 Hybrid
3.5. Power-to-X
4. Results
4.1. Local Energy and WATER USE
4.2. Import and Export of Energy
4.3. Peaks in Energy Demand and Supply
4.4. Zooming in on Long-Term Heat Storage
4.5. Economic Results
5. Discussion
5.1. Energy Balance
5.1.1. Local Production versus Energy Import
5.1.2. More Stable Energy Distribution Pattern with HT-ATES
5.1.3. The Impact of Electrolyzer and Fuel Cell Heat Integration on the Energy Balance
5.1.4. HT-ATES Recovery Efficiency
5.2. Water Supply and Possible Water Demands
5.2.1. Rainwater Supply and Storage in the Neighborhood
5.2.2. Possible Water Demands
5.3. Peak Demand and Supply
5.3.1. The Effect of Power-to-Hydrogen on Peak Demand
5.3.2. More Potential for Peak Shaving with Power-to-Heat and Power-to-Hydrogen
5.3.3. Other Flexibility Services of Power-to-Heat and Power-to-Hydrogen
5.4. System Costs
5.4.1. Diversification of Energy Carriers Lead to Lower System Costs
5.4.2. Retrofitting as an Important Factor in Energy System Costs
5.4.3. Local Hydrogen Production to Electricity Is More Expensive Than Using Electricity Directly
5.4.4. The Importance of Hybrid Designs
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BEV | Battery electric vehicle |
CAPEX | Capital expenditures |
COP | Coefficient of performance |
CHP | Combined heat and power |
DHN | District heating network |
DOD | Depth of discharge |
FCEV | Fuel cell electric vehicle |
HHV | Higher heating value |
HT-ATES | High-temperature aquifer thermal energy storage |
kW | Kilowatt |
MILP | Mixed-integer linear programming model |
MW | Megawatt |
GW | Gigawatt |
OPEX | Operating expenditures |
PV | Photovoltaic |
RES | Renewable energy systems |
Subscripts | |
el | electric power |
th | thermal power |
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System Element | Energy Consumption/Efficiency |
---|---|
Solar PV | Hourly calculation within the model based on HOMER formulas [36], with irradiation and temperature as inputs fixed 10% loss factor (shadow, dust, waste, cables) fixed linear derating factor to 81% of original efficiency over 25 years |
Electrolyzer | 78.8% efficiency (HHV, 50 kWh/kg, on AC) [37] at 90% load |
Industrial heat pump | [38] |
House heat pump | Air sourced: [39] Water sourced: [39] |
H2 boiler | 98% efficiency (HHV) |
Heat exchanger | Fixed heat loss of 1.5 °C |
fuel cell | 60% efficiency—(HHV) |
Rainwater storage | 70% recovery efficiency [40] |
HT ATES | Input temperature warm well 50 °C Hydrological model (see Supplementary Materials Section 3.3) to determine the efficiency |
District heating network (DHN) | 2% energy use for pumping, heat loss determined per hour (see Supplementary Materials Section 4.2) |
Battery | 95% one-way efficiency [10,41] 25% (4C) charge/discharge rate [41] max 90% depth of discharge (DOD) |
Electricity grid | 98% AC/DC conversion |
BEV charging | 90.7% charging efficiency [42] |
CAPEX | Lifetime | OM Cost (% of Investment Cost Unless Stated Otherwise) | |
---|---|---|---|
Neighborhood systems | |||
PV panels (park) | 600 €/kWp [43,44,45] | 25 | 1.5% |
Battery storage | 300.000 €/MWh [10,41] a | 12 (4000 cycles) [10] | 1% |
Electrolyzer | 500 €/kW [42,46,47] | 20 [42] | 2% [42] |
Fuel cell (stationary) | 500 €/kW b [37,46,48] | 15 [48,49] | 2% |
Heat pump | 400 €/kWth c [48,50,51] | 20 [48] | 1% [48] |
Heat storage system | 0.1 €/kWhth [32] | 40 [27] | 1.5% [27] |
District heating network d | 6000 €/house [52] | 40 | 2% [53] |
Grid reinforcement e | 862 €/kW [54] | 40 | 1% |
Household systems | |||
PV panels (roof) | 870 €/kWp [48] | 25 | 1.2% [48] |
Air-sourced heat pump f | 6000 €/house [54] | 15 | 2% |
Booster heat pump g | 1000 €/house [55] | 15 | 2% |
Hybrid heat pump, including boiler | 4300 €/house [54] | 15 | 2% |
Adjustments gas network for hydrogen + new gas meter | 373 €/house [56] | 40 | 274 €/y/house h [57,58] |
Electricity grid costs | 308 €/y/house i [57] | ||
Renovation costs—D-C j (13% energy savings) Apartment/terraced | 2940/4680 €/house [54] | 40 | - |
Renovation costs—D-B j (20% energy savings) Apartment/terraced | 4560/9600 €/house [54] | 40 | - |
Renovation costs—D-A j (34% energy savings) Apartment/terraced | 7320/19,200 €/house [54] | 40 | - |
Discount Rate a | 3% [63] |
---|---|
Grid electricity costs 2030 (100% renewable) b | 115 (70–145) €/MWh [64] |
Feed-in tariff c | 57 €/MWh [65] |
Extra infrastructure for peak capacity in all-electric scenario d | All electric: 5 €/MWh [64] |
Hydrogen import costs e | Production: 2.5 €/kg (1.5–3.5 €/kg) [37,47,58,66] Storage: 0.2 €/kg [67] Transport: 0.39 €/kg for 3000 km (0.09–0.17 €/kg for 1000 km) [66] Total: 3.09 €/kg (1.8–4.55 €/kg) |
Terraced | Apartment | Total | |
---|---|---|---|
Number of houses | 1000 | 1000 | 2000 |
Surface area per house | 120 m2 | 60 m2 | - |
People per household | 2.4 | 2 | - |
Solar panels on the roof | 4.8 kWp | 0.8 kWp (shared roof) | 5.6 MWp roof PV |
Local PV park | - | - | 2 MWp |
Energy demand domestic hot water | 2200 kWh/year | 1840 kWh/year | 4 GWh/year |
Space heat demand a | A—5590 kWh/year B—6770 kWh/year C—7365 kWh/year D—8465 kWh/year | A—4045 kWh/year B—4900 kWh/year C—5330 kWh/year D—6130 kWh/year | A—9.6 GWh/year B—11.7 GWh/year C—12.7 GWh/year D—14.6 GWh/year |
Electricity demand (including electric cooking) | 3000 kWh/year + 175 kWh/year cooking | 2400 kWh/year + 175 kWh/year cooking | 5.4 GWh/year |
Mobility | BEV—2600 kWh/year FCEV—110 kg/year (4.333 kWh/year—HHV based) | BEV—2600 kWh/year FCEV—110 kg/year (4.333 kWh/year—HHV based) | BEV: FCEV = 70/30: Electric cars—3.6 GWh/year (of, which 2.2 GWh/year at home charging) Hydrogen cars—66 tons H2–2.6 GWh/year |
Electricity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
All-Electric | All-Electric H2 | H2 Hybrid | Power-to-X | |
Direct from RES | 27% | 24% | 23% | 30% |
From grid | 65% | 7% | 26% | 70% |
From H2 storage | 0% | 69% | 51% | 0% |
From battery | 8% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
Hydrogen | ||||
All-electric | All-electric H2 | H2 hybrid | Power-to-X | |
Direct from RES | - | 15% | 19% | 60% |
From H2 storage | - | 85% | 81% | 40% |
Heat | ||||
All-electric | All-electric H2 | H2 hybrid | Power-to-X | |
From electricity (grid/RES) | 100% | 100% | 67% | 10% |
From hydrogen | - | - | 33% | - |
From heat storage | - | - | - | 90% |
Load Factors in % | All-Electric | All-Electric H2 | H2 Hybrid | Power-to-X |
---|---|---|---|---|
Heat pump | - | - | - | 33.0 |
Electrolyzer | - | 17.5 | 18.3 | 10.9 |
Fuel cell | - | 53.9 | 66.2 | - |
PV park | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 |
PV houses | 9.5 | 9.5 | 9.5 | 9.5 |
Hot Well Efficiency | Warm Well Efficiency | Yearly System Efficiency | Heat Storage (TJ) | Heat Supply (TJ) | Volume Storage (−1000 M3) | Volume Supply (−1000 M3) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year 6 | 103% | 68% | 85% | 72.8 | 63.0 | 717 | 747 |
Year 7 | 64% | 109% | 54% | 80.8 | 43.7 | 788 | 522 |
Year 8 | 85% | 84% | 70% | 71.9 | 51.0 | 728 | 604 |
Year 9 | 95% | 81% | 81% | 68.0 | 56.0 | 696 | 666 |
Year 10 | 71% | 102% | 59% | 67.2 | 39.9 | 689 | 472 |
Average | 84% | 89% | 71% | 72.1 | 50.7 | 724 | 602 |
All-Electric | All-Electric H2 | H2 Hybrid | Power-to-X | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total electricity bought (MWh/year) | 7780 | 890 | 2870 | 9680 |
Total electricity sold (MWh/year) | 2510 | 700 | 800 | 300 |
Total H2 used (ton/year) | 66 | 415 | 340 | 66 |
Total H2 produced (ton/year) | 0 | 64 | 66 | 36 |
Total CAPEX system (M€) | 47 | 46 | 24 | 40 |
OM system (M€/year) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.0 |
Ecost system (electricity + H2 in M€/year) | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.2 |
Discounted investment costs (€/year/household) | 1820 | 1800 | 1480 | 1480 |
Electricity import costs (€/year/household) | 400 | 30 | 140 | 550 |
Hydrogen import costs (€/year/household) | 100 | 540 | 440 | 40 |
Costs per household (€/year)—see Figure 15 for breakdown | 2320 | 2370 | 2070 | 2070 |
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van der Roest, E.; Fens, T.; Bloemendal, M.; Beernink, S.; van der Hoek, J.P.; van Wijk, A.J.M. The Impact of System Integration on System Costs of a Neighborhood Energy and Water System. Energies 2021, 14, 2616. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092616
van der Roest E, Fens T, Bloemendal M, Beernink S, van der Hoek JP, van Wijk AJM. The Impact of System Integration on System Costs of a Neighborhood Energy and Water System. Energies. 2021; 14(9):2616. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092616
Chicago/Turabian Stylevan der Roest, Els, Theo Fens, Martin Bloemendal, Stijn Beernink, Jan Peter van der Hoek, and Ad J. M. van Wijk. 2021. "The Impact of System Integration on System Costs of a Neighborhood Energy and Water System" Energies 14, no. 9: 2616. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092616