A Survey on Optimization Techniques Applied to Magnetic Field Mitigation in Power Systems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mitigation of Low-Frequency Magnetic Fields
2.1. Intrinsic Techniques
- Layout and compaction [13]: It is well-know that, when the relative positions of the conductors are rearranged (layout), for example from linear to equilateral triangle disposition, the MF decays faster as the distance to conductors increases (Figure 1). A further MF reduction can be obtained by reducing the phase-to-phase clearance (compaction). For example, by installing compactors along overhead line spans (realized through rod insulators forming equilateral triangles), a 56% reduction of the maximum ground-level MF is achievable, in comparison to an overhead transmission line realized with compacted towers (the solution that, at present, minimizes the magnetic field without compactors) [14]. However, this solution also entails a new problem, which includes higher voltage gradients on conductors and insulators, resulting in higher audible noise, radio interference, and increased hardware corona [15,16,17,18]. Additionally, the mitigation achieved can be limited, especially in UPC, where the current rating (ampacity) may be affected by these techniques [19].
- Distance management [13]: Since the intensity of a MF decreases naturally, as a function of distance from the source, it is possible to achieve the appropriate reduced level of MF by simply increasing this distance of separation from the sources (Figure 2). This solution is limited by technical constraints (maximum height for OHL or maximum possible depth for UPC, for example).
- Phase cancellation [22]: Unlike in the phase splitting method, in the phase cancellation method the phases are just rearranged accordingly into an existing configuration. As no new material has to be added, this method is cost effective. This technique is only interesting in the case of more than one circuit. Thus, a representative phase cancellation solution is the low reactance configuration in a double circuit line (Figure 4). The greatest effectiveness of this method is limited almost exclusively to super-bundle double circuit vertical configurations, where the higher and lower phases are interchanged in the second circuit.
2.2. Extrinsic Techniques
- Passive techniques [23,24,25]: In this case, the MF mitigation is obtained because the mitigation system acts in response to the MF generated by the source. For example, a typical situation is when currents are induced in these elements due to Faraday’s Law, which, in turn, generate a new MF that partially cancels the one from the source. Typical mitigation solutions in this group are passive loops [23,24] (Figure 5a) and conductive shields [25] (Figure 5b). Another case is when ferromagnetic materials are used in the mitigation system, since they have the property to attract and trap the MF flux lines thanks to their high permeability. This way, the MF flux lines are moved away from the region to be protected, resulting in a MF mitigation in that area. A good example is the use of ferromagnetic shields [25] (Figure 5c).
- Active techniques [26]: In contrast to previous solutions, active techniques require the use of external power sources to inject appropriate currents (magnitude and phase) in the mitigation system to provide the required mitigation effect (Figure 5d), and, as such, are able to provide a much higher mitigation reduction [26,27,28,29,30]. This is usually used in the so-called active loops. Nonetheless, this requires a more complex mitigation system, as it is necessary to install expensive equipment apart from MF sensors, such as the power sources, and a monitoring system to continuously adjust the injected current to achieve the required mitigation at any time [26,27,30]. All this makes this solution much more expensive than passive ones.
3. Optimization Applied to Intrinsic Techniques
3.1. Conductor Arrangement
3.1.1. Overhead Transmission Lines
3.1.2. Underground Power Lines
3.1.3. Substations
- -
- Preventing useless separation between conductors of different phases;
- -
- Using plaited conductors, with all four conductors, as often as possible;
- -
- Minimizing the length of the cables within the substation;
- -
- Possibly using a compact busbar system, if available, between the transformer and the main LV switchboard.
4. Optimization Applied to Extrinsic Techniques
4.1. Passive Loops
4.2. Active Loops
4.3. Passive Shields
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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MF Mitigation Method | Years | Optimization Technique | MF Mitigation Applications | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1990s | 2000s | 2010s | |||
Conductor arrangement | Parametric analysis | OHL/UPC | |||
Multi-objective OPF | OHL | ||||
Genetic Algorithm | OHL/UPC | ||||
Particle Swarm Optimization | OHL | ||||
Statistical approach | UPC | ||||
Differential Evolution | OHL | ||||
Passive loops | Parametric Analysis | OHL/UPC/Subst. | |||
Augmented Lagrangian | OHL | ||||
Genetic Algorithm | OHL/UPC | ||||
Particle Swarm Optimization | OHL | ||||
Active loops | Parametric analysis | OHL/UPC/Subst. | |||
Annealing optimization | OHL | ||||
Genetic Algorithm | OHL/UPC/Subst. | ||||
Multiagent Swarm Stochastic | OHL | ||||
Passive shields | Parametric analysis | OHL/UPC/Subst. | |||
Continuum Gradient | UPC | ||||
Genetic Algorithm | UPC |
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Bravo-Rodríguez, J.C.; del-Pino-López, J.C.; Cruz-Romero, P. A Survey on Optimization Techniques Applied to Magnetic Field Mitigation in Power Systems. Energies 2019, 12, 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12071332
Bravo-Rodríguez JC, del-Pino-López JC, Cruz-Romero P. A Survey on Optimization Techniques Applied to Magnetic Field Mitigation in Power Systems. Energies. 2019; 12(7):1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12071332
Chicago/Turabian StyleBravo-Rodríguez, Juan Carlos, Juan Carlos del-Pino-López, and Pedro Cruz-Romero. 2019. "A Survey on Optimization Techniques Applied to Magnetic Field Mitigation in Power Systems" Energies 12, no. 7: 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12071332