Factors Contributing to Haze Pollution: Evidence from Macao, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Macao’s Social and Economic Development
2. Method
2.1. Data Sources
2.2. Stationarity of Time-Series
- Test for a unit root:
- Test for a unit root with a drift:
- Test for a unit root with a drift and a deterministic time trend:
2.3. Association between Variables
2.4. Regression Analysis
3. Results and Analysis
3.1. Haze and Meteorological Conditions
3.2. Energy Use in Macao
3.3. Stationarity of the Annual Haze Time-Series Data and the Annaul Energy Consumption Data
3.4. Correlation and Multiple Regression Analysis
3.5. Associations between Haze and Meteorological Variables on a Monthly Basis
3.6. Association between Haze in Macao and Haze Days in Guangzhou
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Primary Energy in TJ | ||||||
Motor Gasoline | Gas oil & Diesel | Fueloil | Kerosene | Liquefied Petroleum Gas | Natural Gas | Aviation Kerosene 1 | |
1986 | 666 | 4878 | 5660 | 533 | 358 | 0 | 0 |
1991 | 748 | 4240 | 8438 | 417 | 561 | 0 | 0 |
1996 | 1263 | 3498 | 10,842 | 363 | 952 | 0 | 2057 |
2001 | 1340 | 3869 | 12,509 | 447 | 1117 | 0 | 3803 |
2006 | 1777 | 6195 | 12,427 | 295 | 1488 | 0 | 8769 |
2011 | 2659 | 5787 | 3864 | 190 | 1954 | 2873 | 6003 |
2016 | 3329 | 4526 | 6270 | 95 | 2032 | 393 | 10,258 |
Year | Secondary Energy (i.e., Electricity in GWh) | ||||||
Net Imported Electricity 2 | Net Electricity Produced Locally 3 | Electricity Consumed | |||||
1986 | 42 | 489 | 531 | ||||
1991 | 95 | 756 | 860 | ||||
1996 | 222 | 1126 | 1348 | ||||
2001 | 249 | 1353 | 1602 | ||||
2006 | 946 | 1459 | 2424 | ||||
2011 | 3165 | 691 | 3856 | ||||
2016 | 4306 | 988 | 5294 |
Critical/Tau Values | Annual Haze Time-Series | Annual Total Primary Energy Consumption Time-Series | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant, No Trend | Constant, with Trend | Constant, No Trend | Constant, with Trend | |||
Calculated tau value | −1.693 | −1.256 | −1.351 | −1.081 | ||
Critical value [24]: | For a sample size of 25 | Significant at 0.01 level | −3.75 | −4.38 | −3.75 | −4.38 |
Significant at 0.05 level | −3.00 | −3.60 | −3.00 | −3.60 | ||
For a sample size of 50 | Significant at 0.01 level | −3.58 | −4.15 | −3.58 | −4.15 | |
Significant at 0.05 level | −2.93 | −3.50 | −2.93 | −3.50 | ||
Null hypothesis-stationary | rejected | rejected | rejected | rejected |
Energy Use (in TJ) | |||||||
Motor Gasoline | Gas Oil/Diesel | Fuel Oil | Kerosene | Liquefied Petroleum Gas | Natural Gas | Aviation Gasoline | |
Haze | 0.38 * | 0.73 ** | 0.17 | −0.33 | 0.59 ** | 0.34 | 0.66 ** |
Annual Meteorological Conditions | |||||||
Annual Mean Atmospheric Pressure | Annual Mean Air Temperature | Annual Total Rainfall | |||||
Haze | −0.10 | −0.35 | 0.08 |
Year | Correlation between Haze and Monthly Mean Atmospheric Pressure | Correlation between Haze and Monthly Mean Air Temperature | Correlation between Haze and Monthly Total Rainfall |
---|---|---|---|
1986 | −0.47 | −0.47 | −0.11 |
1991 | −0.24 | 0.22 | 0.24 |
1996 | 0.10 | −0.33 | −0.35 |
2001 | 0.31 | −0.15 | −0.31 |
2006 | 0.70 ** | −0.43 | −0.75 ** |
2011 | 0.79 ** | −0.82 ** | −0.63 * |
2016 | 0.51 * | −0.43 | −0.32 |
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To, W.-M.; Lee, P.K.C.; Ng, C.T. Factors Contributing to Haze Pollution: Evidence from Macao, China. Energies 2017, 10, 1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091352
To W-M, Lee PKC, Ng CT. Factors Contributing to Haze Pollution: Evidence from Macao, China. Energies. 2017; 10(9):1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091352
Chicago/Turabian StyleTo, Wai-Ming, Peter K. C. Lee, and Chi To Ng. 2017. "Factors Contributing to Haze Pollution: Evidence from Macao, China" Energies 10, no. 9: 1352. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091352