Encapsulated Nitrates Phase Change Material Selection for Use as Thermal Storage and Heat Transfer Materials at High Temperature in Concentrated Solar Power Plants
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Phase Change Materials
3. EPCM State of the Art
- (1)
- Cascade system is a TES technique characterized by using encapsulated salts in packed beds, which are progressively ordered according to their melting points from the bottom to the top of a single tank [38]. This method allows one to significantly increase the heat transfer rate, due to the constant melting. In fact, cascades of macro-encapsulated PCMs can store 50% more energy per unit volume than conventional two tanks system of CSP plants [39]. Compared to traditional CSP two-tank systems, the cost of such a TES system could decrease from 27 to 16 $USD/kWh, according to [40,41].
- (2)
- Micro-encapsulated phase change slurry (MEPCS), which consists of a suspension where PCMs are microencapsulated, enhancing heat transfer due to direct surface contact between EPCM and heat transfer fluid (HTF), without altering the physical properties of the liquid (density, viscosity) [42].
- (3)
- Fluidized bed storage (FBS) is similar to the packed bed of cascade system, but instead of fixed PCM, EPCMs flow inside a TES single-tank. This method allows one to work at uniform temperature and increase the heat transfer rate of micro-encapsulated PCMs [43]. High heat transfer rates can be achieved between a fluidized bed of coated PCM particles and a heat exchanging surface [44]. In circulating fluidized bed, heat transfer rate determines heat exchange surface area required, which depends on capsule diameter [44,45].
4. Methodology
Criteria Selection for EPCM Materials
- Thermal: The melting point in within the desired operating temperature range. A high latent heat of fusion per mass unit, so that a smaller amount of material stores a given amount of energy. A high specific heat to provide additional significant sensible heat storage effects. A high thermal conductivity, so that the temperature gradients for charging and discharging the storage material are reduced.
- Physical: Small volume changes during phase transitions, so that a simple container and heat exchanger geometry can be used. High density. Exhibit little or no sub-cooling during freezing. Low vapor pressure in order to avoid stresses and problems with the container and the needed heat exchangers.
- Chemical: Chemical stability, no chemical decomposition and corrosion to construction materials. No phase separation. They must contain non-poisonous, non-flammable and non-explosive elements/compounds.
- Economical: Available in large quantities. Low cost.
5. Modeling of EPCM
5.1. Geometry Characterization
- (1)
- Geometry characterization 1: For the selections of materials, to compare in equal conditions different types of materials, R, r and T values are 1.1, 1.0 and 0.1 mm, respectively. These dimensions are selected considering previous studies under ideal conditions.
- (2)
- Geometry characterization 2: Using the best material combination found, , in order to analyze the pressure and the thermal storage for different shell thickness for the thermomechanical coupling, the PCM thickness is varied five times ( 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 mm) with R always equal to 1.1 mm and .
- (3)
- Geometry characterization 3: Using the best materials combination for thermal analysis, R and r adopt several values, keeping the relative thickness ( equal to ). For this part the following dimensions in (mm) are used for = (1.1, 1.0), (11, 10), (22, 20), (33, 30), (55, 50), (66, 60), (77, 70), (110, 100), (220, 200), (330, 300). Since previous studies used different dimensions, making it difficult to decide a correct dimension, this evaluation is performed in order to know the effects of increasing geometry dimensions.
5.2. Heat Transfer Modeling
5.2.1. Shell Modeling
5.2.2. Shell/PCM Interface Modeling
5.2.3. PCM Modeling
6. Results
6.1. Results and Analyses of the EPCM Shell
6.2. Results and Analyses of EPCMs (Geometry Characterization 1)
6.3. Results and Analyses of EPCM Dimensions Variation
6.3.1. Thickness Variation (Geometry Characterization 2)
6.3.2. Radius Variation (Geometry Characterization 3)
7. Conclusions
8. Future Works
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material | Thermal Conduc. (W/m·K) | Density (kg/m3) | Specific Heat (J/kg·K) | Thermal Expansion (1/K) | Melting Temperature (°C) [48] | Poisson Ratio [5] | Young’s Modulus (GPa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nickel | 90.7 | 8900 | 445 | 1.34 × 10−5 | 1453 | 0.31 | 219 |
Iron | 80.2 | 7860 | 449 | 1.18 × 10−5 | 1535 | 0.27 | 152 |
Copper | 401 | 8960 | 384 | 1.65 × 10−5 | 1083 | 0.34 | 120 |
Al/Si (12/88) | 160 | 2700 | 1038 | 2.19 × 10−5 | 830 | 0.33 | 71 |
Gold | 317 | 19,300 | 129 | 1.42 × 10−5 | 1064 | 0.44 | 70 |
Silver | 429 | 10,500 | 235 | 1.89 × 10−5 | 962 | 0.37 | 83 |
Aluminum | 237 | 2700 | 904 | 2.31 × 10−5 | 660 | 0.35 | 70 |
Granite | 2.9 | 2600 | 850 | 7.00 × 10−5 | 1215–1260 | 0.25 | 60 |
Silicon Carbide | 450 | 3200 | 1200 | 3.80 × 10−5 | 2730 | 0.18 | 450 |
Silicon | 130 | 2329 | 700 | 2.60 × 10−5 | 1410 | 0.28 | 17 |
Graphite | 100 | 1950 | 710 | 7.50 × 10−5 | 3550 | 0.35 | 30 |
PCM | State | Density (kg/m3) | Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K) | Specific Heat (J/kg·K) | Melting Points (K) | Latent Heat (kJ/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LiNO3 | Solid | 2380 [71] | 0.6 [72] | 1700 [31] | 526 [73] | 373 [73] |
Liquid | 1780 [31] | 0.7 [72] | 2100 [72] | |||
NaNO3 | Solid | 2113 [74] | 0.6 [75] | 1655 [74] | 581 [75] | 172 [74] |
Liquid | 1908 [74] | 0.51 [75] | 1655 [74] | |||
MgCl2 | Solid | 2230 [75] | 0.6 [75] | 798 [21] | 987 [75] | 454 [75] |
Liquid | 1675 [75] | 1.2 [75] | 974 [75] | |||
KNO3/NaNO3 (40/60 wt %) | Solid | 2192 [76] | 0.78 [77] | 1430 [76] | 496 [36] | 105 [36] |
Liquid | 2096 [76] | 0.45 [77] | 1540 [76] | |||
NaCl/MgCl2 (57/43 mol %) | Solid | 2072 [21] | 0.5 [78] | 874 [37] | 717 [79] | 292 [37] |
Liquid | 1750 [80] | 0.5 [78] | 1100 [37] | |||
LiNO3/KNO3/NaNO3 (30/50/20 wt %) | Solid | 2088 [79] | 0.45 [79] | 1500 [79] | 393 [79] | 155 [81] |
Liquid | 1720 [82] | 0.45 [81] | 2320 [82] |
Shell | PCM | Size | Charged Temp. (°C) | Energy Stored (kJ/kg) | Encapsulation Method |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Copper [83] | NaNO3 | 76.2 Diameter × 254 Height | 425 | 211 | Macro-encapsulation |
Carbon Steel 1018, Stainless steel 304 [84] | NaNO3 | - | 308 | 177 | External coating |
Ni 200/201 [84] | KOH | - | 280 | 150 | External coating |
Fe-Ni-Cr-Co and Co-Ni-Cr-W alloys [84] | Zn/Al 95.96/4.00 | - | 381 | 138 | Preformed shell |
Ti and its alloys [84] | Al/Si/Mg 83.14/11.70/5.16 | - | 555 | 485 | Preformed shell |
Ti and its alloys [84] | Al/Cu/Mg 70.60/25.46/3.94 | - | 560 | 545 | Preformed shell |
Stainless steel 304 [85] | Zinc | 25.4 mm Diameter × 50.8 mm Height | 455 | 113 | Macro-encapsulation |
Stainless steel 304 [85] | Aluminum | 25.4 mm Diameter × 50.8 mm Height | 710 | 398 | Macro-encapsulation |
Carbon Steel 1018 [85] | NaCl/MgCl2 eutectic | 50.8 mm Diameter × 127 mm Height | 490 | 700 | Macro-encapsulation |
Stainless steel 304 [85] | MgCl2 | 25.4 mm Diameter × 50.8 mm Height | 745 | 1000 | Macro-encapsulation |
Stainless steel 304 [85] | NaCl | 25.4 mm Diameter × 50.8 mm Height | 830 | 1200 | Macro-encapsulation |
Polyurea [86] | Butyl stearate | 20–35 μm Diameter | 29 | 80 | Interfacial poly-condensation |
Silica gel polymer [86] | Paraffin/HDPE | - | 18.55–22.60 | 24.94–153.46 | In Situ Polymerization |
PMMA [37] | Docosane | 0.16 μm Diameter | 41 | 54.6 | Emulsion Polymerization |
PMMA [37] | Paraffin Wax | 0.21 μm Diameter | 49.7 | 106.9 | UV irradiation-initiated polymerization |
PMMA [37] | Paraffin | 0.2 μm Diameter | 26.24 | 84.0 | Sol-gel |
PMMA [37] | n-Octadecane | 0.119 μm Diameter | 31.9 | 208.7 | Miniemulsion Polymerization |
PTFE [87] | NaNO3 | - | 326 | 170 | - |
PTFE + Nickel coating [87] | NaNO3 | - | 326 | 172 | - |
PTFE + Nickel coating [87] | KNO3 | - | 350 | 92 | - |
Material | Strain Amplitude (%) | Stress Amplitude (MPa) | Life Cycles Nf |
---|---|---|---|
Fe (Armco) | 0.039% | 181 (20 °C) | >106 |
0.120% | 230 (300 °C) | ||
Ni | 0.081% | 160 (20 °C) | >106 |
Cu | 0.062% | 77 (20 °C) | >106 |
0.034% | 40 (300 °C) | ||
Al | 0.038% | 27 (20 °C) | >106 |
AlSi12 casting [89] | n.a. | 100 (20 °C) | >106 |
60 (300 °C) | |||
Al alloys [89]: 319 Al 75S-T6 | n.a. | 38 | >106 |
123 | |||
Steel alloys [90]: 517 340 | n.a. | 420 | >106 |
340 | |||
Carbon steel API 5L [91] | 0.5 | 453 | 1466 |
1.0 | 531 | 467 | |
Ni-based GH4169 superalloy [92] | 0.5 | 930 | 25,956 |
1.0 | 1110 | 1516 | |
Cu alloy (8% at. Al) [93] | 2 | n.a. | 505 |
4 | n.a. | 128 | |
- | 450 | 10,000 | |
Al alloy 2024-T3 (5% Cu) [94] | 0.6 | 380 (20 °C) | 14,568 |
1.0 | 431 (20 °C) | 2614 | |
0.6 | 334 (300 °C) | 3719 | |
1.0 | 358 (300 °C) | 444 | |
Al alloy 6061-T6 [95] | 0.5 | n.a. | 28,612 |
1.0 | 6855 |
Material | Cost of Materials ($USD) | Cost of Tanks ($USD) | Sum of Costs ($USD) (Materials + Tanks) |
---|---|---|---|
Solar salt a (sensible heating) | $35,817,291.09 | $8,464,500.00 | $44,281,791.09 |
PCM b with iron shell | $28,947,482.50 | $5,202,570.92 | $34,150,053.43 |
PCM b with copper shell | $231,541,413.06 | $5,223,805.85 | $236,765,218.90 |
PCM b with nickel shell | $412,961,521.47 | $5,078,700.13 | $418,040,221.60 |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Cáceres, G.; Fullenkamp, K.; Montané, M.; Naplocha, K.; Dmitruk, A. Encapsulated Nitrates Phase Change Material Selection for Use as Thermal Storage and Heat Transfer Materials at High Temperature in Concentrated Solar Power Plants. Energies 2017, 10, 1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091318
Cáceres G, Fullenkamp K, Montané M, Naplocha K, Dmitruk A. Encapsulated Nitrates Phase Change Material Selection for Use as Thermal Storage and Heat Transfer Materials at High Temperature in Concentrated Solar Power Plants. Energies. 2017; 10(9):1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091318
Chicago/Turabian StyleCáceres, Gustavo, Karina Fullenkamp, Macarena Montané, Krzysztof Naplocha, and Anna Dmitruk. 2017. "Encapsulated Nitrates Phase Change Material Selection for Use as Thermal Storage and Heat Transfer Materials at High Temperature in Concentrated Solar Power Plants" Energies 10, no. 9: 1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091318