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Article

The Influence of High-Performance Work Systems on the Innovation Performance of Knowledge Workers

by
Yu Ding
and
Yijun Liu
*
School of Economics and Management, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 200235, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(22), 15014; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215014
Submission received: 7 October 2022 / Revised: 3 November 2022 / Accepted: 9 November 2022 / Published: 13 November 2022
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Abstract

:
In the era of a knowledge economy, how to build an effective incentive system and to motivate the creativity of knowledge workers is extremely important to the long-term future of high-tech enterprises. However, a performance incentive system based on material incentives widely constructed by managers not only is difficult to generate in the long term and a significant incentive effect for knowledge workers but also brings heavy economic burden to enterprises. This paper constructs a high-performance work system (HPWS) that includes three variables: career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership. This study also discusses its effects on the innovation performance of knowledge workers, and examines the role of the craftsman spirit in the above-mentioned influence relationships. Based on the valid sample data of 364 knowledge workers from 14 different high-tech enterprises, the hierarchical regression analysis and the bootstrap analysis are used to analyze the data and to verify the relationship between the above-mentioned variables. The results show that: (1) Career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership can significantly improve the innovation performance of knowledge workers. (2) The craftsman spirit plays the part of an intermediary role in the above-mentioned influence relationships. (3) Career calling, inclusive leadership and their interaction can positively regulate the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit. Compared with previous studies, the purpose of this paper is to build a cross-level incentive system for knowledge workers from the perspective of non-material incentives, which effectively makes up for the deficiencies of material incentive system. Furthermore, the conclusion of this paper also provides practical suggestions for managers to better integrate the limited resources of enterprises to meet the multi-level needs of knowledge workers and to improve their innovation performance to the maximum extent.

1. Introduction

In the era of a knowledge economy, the development of enterprises relies more than ever on the production, diffusion, application and innovation of knowledge [1,2,3]. In this context, knowledge workers, as the carriers of knowledge, are receiving more and more attention from enterprise managers. Knowledge workers refers to brainworkers who have profound professional knowledge and can effectively use modern technology to create values for individuals and enterprises [4,5]. Research shows that compared with other types of workers, knowledge workers have a richer educational experience, a stronger ability to accept new things, and higher self-awareness and creativity [6,7,8]. Therefore, how to effectively motivate knowledge workers and to improve their innovation performance is a key issue related to whether the value creation activities and technological innovation activities of enterprises can be promoted efficiently. Although scholars have studied the field of human resource management for decades, how to use limited resources to build a reliable incentive system with the best incentive effect is still a continuous challenge [9].
Based on a summary and an analysis of a large number of studies in the literatures, this paper finds that previous papers mainly studied the incentive strategies of workers from two aspects: material incentive and non-material incentive. Material incentives mainly meet the material needs of workers by giving them more salary, equity, bonus, allowance and so on [10,11], thus promoting the positive attitudes and behaviors toward their work. Non-material incentives mainly promote the positive attitudes and behaviors of workers by meeting their high-level needs, such as career development needs and self-actualization needs. Furthermore, the studies of scholars on non-material incentives can be further divided into two levels, namely, individual-level and organizational-level. The non-material incentive at the individual-level refers to managers motivating the autonomy motivation of workers by cultivating their values, sense of responsibilities, professional dedication, job interests and so on in their work [12,13,14,15], so as to improve their innovation ability and innovation performance. Non-material incentive at the organizational-level refers to managers motivating the extrinsic motivation of workers by providing them with a more caring corporate culture, a more harmonious working atmosphere, more opportunities for advancement, better career development resources and so on [16,17,18,19,20,21], so as to improve their innovation ability and innovation performance.
However, there are still some limitations in previous research. First, according to the previous literature, the needs of knowledge workers are mainly concentrated on high-level needs. Therefore, the incentive system based on fundamental needs is difficult to generate in the long term, as are their significant incentives for them. Second, the non-material incentive system based on a single level does not have the synergies of the multi-level systems, so the incentive effect is very limited. Third, the mechanisms and boundary conditions between the previous incentive system and the innovation performance of knowledge workers have not been revealed clearly. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a more efficient performance incentive system for knowledge workers.
The high-performance work system is an enterprise management practice system based on the open innovation mode, which can effectively improve the skills, knowledge, commitment and participation of enterprises’ workers [22,23] and achieve a better work performance from them [23]. A large number of scholars note that compared to the other types of incentive systems, the high-performance work system can allocate the limited resources of the enterprise in an efficient way, thereby improving the knowledge level, ability, motivation and engagement of workers, and then maximizing the creativity and innovation performance of the workers [24,25,26,27]. This research hopes to establish a cross-level high-performance work system from the perspective of non-material incentive. This system cannot only generate long-term and effective incentives for knowledge workers, but also provide new theoretical perspectives and practical suggestions for enterprise managers to better tap into the creativity of knowledge workers.
In addition, some scholars note that the craftsman spirit, as an admirable character trait of seeking excellence and innovation, plays an indispensable role in improving the innovation performance of knowledge workers [28,29]. This paper argues that although the craftsman spirit is often regarded as a unique career pursuit of skilled workers, knowledge workers also have this excellent character trait. According to the self-determination theory, effective incentive measures can encourage workers to produce positive work motivation and behavior at work by meeting their basic psychological needs [30,31]. Therefore, the high-performance work system can also motivate workers’ positive behaviors at work by meeting their psychological and practical needs, so as to make such workers practice the craftsman spirit in their work. Consequently, when discussing the relationship between the high-performance system and the innovation performance of knowledge workers, this paper will also bring the craftsman spirit into the research framework and discuss its role in the above influence relationship.
The methods used in this study include the hierarchical regression analysis and the bootstrap analysis. The reason for using the hierarchical regression analysis is that it predicts the dependent variable using the optimal combination of multiple independent variables, which is more accurate than the prediction result of unit linear regression. The bootstrap analysis is the latest method to test the mediation effect. Its main advantage is that it does not need a large amount of sample data, it does not need sample data to obey normal distribution and the analysis results are also more accurate than traditional analysis methods.
Some possible contributions in this research includes:
  • From the perspective of the non-material incentive, this research combines the variables at the individual-level and the organizational-level and establishes a cross-level high-performance work system for knowledge workers, which effectively makes up the deficiencies of the single-level incentive system.
  • This research not only reveals the mechanism and boundary conditions between the high-performance system and innovation performance, but also effectively enriches the implication of relevance theory.
  • This research proposes a series of feasible strategies to improve the innovation performance of knowledge workers, which can help enterprise managers better apply high-performance work systems to management practices.
The structure of this paper is as follows: Section 1 introduces the research background, research significance, deficiencies of previous literatures and possible contributions of this paper. Section 2 reviews the theories and literatures of incentive systems and puts forward the research hypothesis. Section 3 presents the research design, methods and data analysis results. Section 4 summarizes the conclusions of this research and puts forward suggestions conducive to management practices. Section 5 notes the limitations of this research and directions for future research.

2. Theoretical Foundations and Research Hypothesis

2.1. Theoretical Foundations

In recent years, many papers in the literature have studied the high-performance work system based on different theories, such as AMO theory, human capital theory, social exchange theory, matching theory, self-determination theory, etc. After careful comparison, this paper chose the AMO theory and self-determination theory as the basis of the research. AMO theory is mainly used to build the research model of this paper, and self-determination theory is mainly used to derive the research hypotheses. The reason for choosing those two theories is that they can analyze the synthetical effects of different variables on performance from a multidimensional perspective. Compared with other management theories based on a single-dimensional perspective to analyze the problem, the results of these two theories are more comprehensive and reliable.
Appelbaum [32] propounded the AMO theory for the first time when studying the influence mechanism of the high-performance work system on work performance. According to AMO theory, ability, motivation and opportunity are the three core elements that drive the improvement of work performance. In other words, work performance is a function of above three elements, that is, P (performance) = F (A (ability), M (motivation), O (opportunity)). In addition, Li [33] further notes in his research that the influence of the above three elements on work performance is not independent of each other; there will be interactions among them, which will jointly influence the performance of workers. After summarizing and analyzing the existing literature, this paper proposes the following theoretical framework. First, the literature shows that compared with other types of workers, knowledge workers pay more attention to high-level needs such as being respected and realizing their own values [2,6]. When managers provide knowledge workers with the resources and opportunities needed for career growth, they can not only meet the high-level needs of the workers, but also enable them to obtain the ability required for innovation [18,19,34,35]. Second, the innovation activities of knowledge workers are difficult and risky, so they often face failure. Inclusive leadership is an open and accessible leadership style [36,37]. Compared with other types of leadership, inclusive leadership is more inclined to listen to innovative ideas and to give workers more psychological care and support. When knowledge workers encounter failures in innovation activities, inclusive leadership is also willing to give them more opportunities to make up for their failures [38,39,40]. Third, the existing literature notes that having a high spiritual pursuit is one of the basic characteristics of most knowledge workers, which can effectively encourage them to show a higher sense of engagement and responsibility in their work [41,42]. Elangovan [43] and Duffy [44] note that this kind of engagement and sense of responsibility exclusively possessed by knowledge workers is essentially career calling, which can effectively stimulate the motivation of knowledge workers and make them always energetic in their work. In summary, the model composed of career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership meets the preconditions of AMO theory and can constitute a high-performance work system.
Based on the above analysis, this study attempts to answer the following two questions: (1) Can the high-performance work system composed of career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership have a significant positive effect on the innovation performance of knowledge workers? (2) What kind of roles does the craftsman spirit mentioned in the Introduction play between the high-performance work system and the innovation performance of knowledge workers? This paper will solve the above-mentioned two problems in the parts following.

2.2. Research Hypothesis

2.2.1. The Influence of Career Growth on Innovation Performance of Knowledge Workers

Career growth refers to the resources provided by managers that can improve the knowledge and skills of workers, such as undertaking more challenging tasks, more responsibilities, etc. [45,46]. The research notes that knowledge workers attach great importance to their non-material needs, such as career development, value realization [47,48], etc. Therefore, career growth can effectively meet the career pursuit of knowledge workers, and thus stimulate their enthusiasm and creativity in their work [49,50]. In addition, trait-motivation theory notes that some personality traits or advantages of individuals need to be better displayed in the corresponding situations [51,52,53]. When high-tech enterprises provide knowledge workers with the resources and opportunities for career growth, they also build a good situation and platform for giving full play to their professional capabilities, which will be conducive to the production of more innovative achievements. Lastly, social exchange theory also notes that when enterprises provide workers with more high-quality resource support, such as richer salary, more training and ability improvement opportunities, effective organizational culture and organizational support, it will promote their positive emotions towards the organization and increase their loyalty to the organization and their tendency to seek rewards [21,54,55,56,57]. Based on the principle of reciprocity, the workers will give back to the organization with higher innovation performance. To sum up, this paper puts forward the following assumption:
H1. 
Career growth has a significant positive influence on innovation performance of knowledge workers.

2.2.2. The Influence of Career Calling on Innovation Performance of Knowledge Workers

Career calling refers to individuals that experience a strong sense of meaning, mission and work passion in a certain career [58]. The scholars note that this sense of mission and sense of meaning of career calling can bring a strong internal motivation for knowledge workers, encourage them to maintain a positive working attitude, and thus effectively promote their creativity [44,59,60]. In addition, some scholars believe that career calling is not only an internal motivation, but also a very important external motivation [61,62,63]. Amabile [64] argues that the workers’ external motivation can significantly influence their perception of innovation atmosphere in the environment. When knowledge workers feel that the surrounding environment and working atmosphere are improving, they can drive their strong interest and curiosity in the new working environment, thus stimulating their inherent innovation potential and effectively improving their innovation performance [65,66,67]. Finally, Schabram [68] notes that career calling can promote the positive feelings of workers, change their way of thinking, promote the continuous improvement of their innovative ideas and ultimately achieve the integration of their creativity. To sum up, this paper puts forward the following assumption:
H2. 
Career calling has a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers.

2.2.3. The Influence of Inclusive Leadership on Innovation Performance of Knowledge Workers

Leadership style is one of the key factors influencing the innovation performance of enterprise workers [69]. Inclusive leadership refers to a leadership style. Compared with the other leadership styles, inclusive leadership is more willing to encourage and appreciate the contributions of workers, and often actively accepts their views and opinions [70]. Based on the social exchange theory, when knowledge workers feel the trust, encouragement and respect from leaders, they will have a sense of responsibility to repay the organization and will work efficiently and innovatively [55,71]. In addition, inclusive leaders are willing to actively encourage knowledge workers to participate in decision-making and support them to use new methods to solve problems, which also helps them to give full play to their creativities. At the same time, inclusive leadership is also more tolerant of the failures of workers, which makes them more willing to take possible risks and put forward new ideas and originality [72,73,74,75]. Finally, the innovation activities that knowledge workers are engaged in are particularly difficult, the pressure of this group is far greater than that of ordinary workers [76,77,78,79]. Inclusive leadership emphasizes humanistic care for workers, which makes them more likely to have positive emotional experiences. Therefore, this leadership style can help reduce the work pressure of knowledge workers and give them a more positive work experience. These positive emotional experiences will help knowledge workers gain more inspiration and creativity and help them carry out creative activities. To sum up, this paper puts forward the following assumption:
H3. 
Inclusive leadership has a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers.

2.2.4. The Intermediary Role of the Craftsman Spirit

The craftsman spirit refers to the behavior and spirit of workers in their work, which is characterized by dedication, excellence and innovation [28]. Previous literature notes that by cultivating the craftsman spirit of knowledge, not only can workers maximize their work potential but also it is a necessary condition to help the enterprise create a more innovation performance [80]. As the main work pursuit of knowledge workers, career growth is of indispensable importance for cultivating the craftsman spirit of this group. According to social exchange theory [81,82,83], when workers accept various opportunities and resources related to their career development provided by the enterprise, they will have a tendency to reciprocate [54,56]. This kind of inducement will enhance workers’ enthusiasm for work and it is also easy to promote them to identify with the enterprise’s values and culture, thus making them have a sense of responsibility and love for their jobs. Additionally, career growth can also bring a series of psychological changes to knowledge workers, such as becoming more confident and optimistic, improving their recognition of work and organization, and becoming full of hope for the future [19,20,34,84]. These positive emotions are also a manifestation of the connotation of the craftsman spirit. Therefore, it can be speculated that the craftsman spirit plays a mediating role between career growth and innovation performance.
Knowledge workers are a group with a higher sense of career calling and they pay more attention to the meaning and value of work than other types of workers [85,86]. Research shows that under the guidance of career calling, knowledge workers are more willing to overcome difficulties in work, even at the expense of personal interests to complete their work and mission. This high sense of responsibility and professionalism is essentially a manifestation of the craftsman spirit [29]. In addition, Dik and Steger [80] note that workers with a higher career calling have stronger identification of the value and significance of their careers. According to social identity theory, workers who have a higher sense of organizational identity will also have higher positive emotions and self-improvement awareness than ordinary workers [87,88], which is also conducive to them practicing the craftsman spirit of excellence and of innovation in their work. Based on this, it can be inferred that the craftsman spirit will play a mediating role between career calling and innovation performance.
Inclusive leadership is a leadership style that is willing to accept, appreciate and attach importance to the efforts and contributions of workers [89,90]. Compared with other types of leadership, workers can gain more respect, trust and security from inclusive leaders, which also helps themselves to enhance the confidence and enthusiasm for work, and thus to show the craftsman spirit of continuing to improve and pursue excellence [37,38]. According to social exchange theory, when workers obtain spiritual encouragement and support from their leaders, they are more likely to have a sense of responsibility in return [54,71], so as to show a more serious and responsible working attitude at work. In addition, self-determination theory also believes that when the working environment can meet the basic needs of workers, they will take more initiative to make behaviors beneficial to themselves or the development of enterprises [30,91,92]. Inclusive leadership can stimulate the internal motivation of knowledge workers by meeting their needs for autonomy, competence and sense of belonging. At this time, knowledge workers will also practice the excellent qualities of the craftsman spirit, repay the organization with a more serious, responsible work spirit; and bring more innovation performance to the enterprise. To sum up, this paper puts forward the following assumptions:
H4. 
The craftsman spirit plays an intermediary role between career growth and innovation performance of knowledge workers.
H5. 
The craftsman spirit plays an intermediary role between career calling and innovation performance of knowledge workers.
H6. 
The craftsman spirit plays an intermediary role between inclusive leadership and innovation performance of knowledge workers.

2.2.5. The Moderating Role of Career Calling

Career calling is essentially a value-oriented value. Workers with high career calling can show strong sense of responsibility and motivation in their work and pay more attention to the growth and learning opportunities in their field [60,93,94]. Career growth not only provides knowledge workers with all kinds of resource support necessary to realize the value and significance of themselves but also urges them to further explore the significance of their work to a certain extent [19,95]. Therefore, career growth meets the internal needs of the worker well and value demands out of them. Driven by career calling, they will also cherish the growth and progress opportunities in the enterprise and reflect the serious, responsible and meticulous craftsman spirit at work. At the same time, according to trait arousal theory, personality traits can only be expressed or activated in the corresponding situation and then reflect the advantages of personality traits in work [51]. As an excellent personality trait, the stronger the career calling is, the more it is able to embody the craftsman spirit of loving and respecting their posts and striving for perfection in their work. To sum up, this paper puts forward the following assumption:
H7. 
Career calling has a positive regulating influence on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers.

2.2.6. The Moderating Role of Inclusive Leadership

Knowledge workers are constantly faced with the risk of mistakes or task failures in the process of innovation. Mistakes can easily lead to a reduction in self-efficacy and innovation willingness. When inclusive leaders show tolerance and encouragement for the mistakes at this time, they can more effectively encourage knowledge workers to make bold attempts at new methods to improve their job competence [37,38]. If the inclusiveness of leaders is low, even if workers have innovative thinking and ability, they will give up with the mentality of “not seeking merit but seeking no fault” in the face of challenging opportunities. In addition, the research shows that inclusive leadership has the characteristics of accessibility and of effectiveness, which provides internal motivation for the innovative behavior of knowledge workers with the craftsman spirit [29,39]. According to the principle of reciprocity, knowledge workers who receive the favor of leaders will have a tendency of equal return; show higher work engagement in their work; are more willing to give full play to their own qualifications for innovation [96,97] and are more able to show the craftsman spirit of professional respect for work, refinement and innovation in their work. Therefore, inclusive leadership can regulate the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit to a certain extent. To sum up, this paper puts forward the following assumption:
H8. 
Inclusive leadership has a positive regulating influence on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers.

2.2.7. The Moderating Role of the Interaction between Career Calling and Inclusive Leadership

The higher the career calling of knowledge workers, the stronger their motivation will be. Strong work motivation will encourage them to constantly learn in their work and to try different methods to achieve their goals [80,93]. At this time, leaders will also give knowledge workers more tolerance, understanding, trust, autonomy and a better salary to help them give more efficient play to their creativity [37,39]. Therefore, the career calling of knowledge workers has a certain driving influence on the inclusiveness of the leaders. On the other hand, the more inclusive leaders are, the more knowledge workers can feel the love, trust and support given by the organization. Therefore, they are more willing to perform their responsibilities in a positive state and have a deeper sense of satisfaction and pleasure [98,99,100]. It can be concluded that the inclusiveness of the leaders has a certain driving influence on the career calling of knowledge workers. Based on the above analysis, it can be found that inclusive leadership and career calling of knowledge workers can promote and influence each other and their interaction may regulate the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit. To sum up, this paper puts forward the following assumption:
H9. 
The interaction between career calling and inclusive leadership has a positive regulating influence on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers.
Based on the argument above, this paper constructs a high-performance work system composed of three variables: career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership and tests its impact on the innovation performance of knowledge workers. In addition, the craftsman spirit is introduced into the research model as a possible intermediary variable. The final research model of this paper is shown in Figure 1:

3. Research Design and Method

3.1. Measurement Scales

The validity of the scale is the key to the success of this study. This study mainly uses validated and reliable questionnaires to collect data. In order to make the scales more in line with the needs of the survey, this paper also appropriately improved the expression of the questionnaire items. The origins of the scales are shown in Table 1. In addition, the above scales are based on the 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “5 = strongly agree”.

3.2. Small Sample Investigation

During the period from January 2022 to February 2022, this study conducted a pre-survey in two cities: Beijing and Shanghai. The main respondents covered knowledge workers in three high-tech fields: electronic information, biopharmaceutics and new energy. This pre-survey adopted the method of distributing paired questionnaires to collect data. The specific methods are as follows: The career growth scale, career calling scale and inclusive leadership scale are handed over to the knowledge workers to fill in and the craftsman spirit scale and innovation performance scale are handed over to their corresponding superiors to fill in. This is to avoid the influence of common method deviation on the research results. A total of 120 paired paper questionnaires were distributed in this pre-survey, and 87 valid paired questionnaires were recovered with an effective recovery rate of 72.5%.
This research uses the corrected-item total correlation analysis (CITC), reliability analysis and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to screen the measurement items of the initial scale. The software SPSS 26.0 was used to calculate the above indicators of the scales and, on this basis, the measurement items of the scales were selected. After this round of screening, three items in the career calling scale, including CC2 and CC4, were deleted, and the remaining nine items were retained. Two items in the innovation performance scale, including IP3 and IP8, were deleted, and the remaining six items were retained. The number of items in other scales remains unchanged. After screening the items, the researchers reordered the items of the remaining scales.

3.3. Formal Investigation

After obtaining the final version of the questionnaire, the researchers conducted a formal large sample survey from March 2022 to June 2022, which lasted nearly four months. The researchers surveyed 14 enterprises in Beijing, Shanghai, Anhui, Sichuan and Fujian, covering knowledge works in many high-tech enterprises, such as electronic information, biopharmaceutical, intelligent transportation, new energy, new materials and aerospace. The formal survey still adopted the method of distributing paired questionnaires to collect data. A total of 320 paired paper questionnaires were distributed in this formal survey with 43 invalid questionnaires excluded and the effective recovery rate was 86.6%. A total of 440 paired questionnaires were distributed in the two investigations and 364 valid questionnaires were recovered, with an effective recovery rate of 82.7%. The specific descriptive statistical results of the sample are shown in Table 2.

3.4. Reliability and Validity Test

This paper uses SPSS 26.0 to test the reliability of the scale. Additionally, this paper establishes a structural equation model with AMOS 26.0 to test the validity of the theoretical model. The specific results are shown in Table 3. According to the test results in Table 3, a Cronbach α Value, factor standardization loading, average variance extraction (AVE), combined reliability (CR) value and fitting index all passed the adaptation standard or critical value, indicating that the quality of the scale is good and is suitable for further analysis.

3.5. Descriptive Statistical Analysis and Correlation Analysis

Table 4 shows the results of descriptive statistical analysis of data, including the average value and standard deviation of each variable and the correlation coefficient between different variables.
As seen in Table 4, the average value of each variable tends towards the middle value and has no extreme value. Additionally, it can be seen from the standard deviation of the item that each variable has a relatively large amount of variation, so the recognition degree of the subject is relatively high.
In addition, there are positive correlations between the career growth and innovation performance, between the career calling and innovation performance and between the inclusive leadership and innovation performance (r = 0.321, p < 0.01; r = 0.506, p < 0.01; r = 0.544, p < 0.01), which preliminarily proves the hypotheses H1, H2 and H3. There are positive correlations between the career growth and the craftsman spirit, between the career calling and the craftsman spirit, and between the inclusive leadership and the craftsman spirit (r = 0.432, p < 0.01; r = 0.480, p < 0.01; r = 0.429, p < 0.01). In addition, there is a significant positive correlation between the craftsman spirit and innovation performance (r = 0.496, p < 0.01), which provides a necessary premise for the test of hypotheses H4, H5 and H6. Furthermore, it was also found from Table 4 that there was a significant positive correlation between career calling and inclusive leadership (r = 0.399, p < 0.01), which also laid the foundation for the verification of mediator effect hypothesis.

3.6. Hypothesis Test

According to the correlation coefficient matrix between variables in Table 4, the research data in this paper meet the conditions of multiple regression. Therefore, according to Baron and Kenny [104], this paper will use the hierarchical regression analysis to test the relationships between the five variables above. In addition, before hypothesis verification, this paper will diagnose the multicollinearity of each variable to judge the severity of multicollinearity and whether it will affect the results.
This paper mainly uses the method of hierarchical regression to test the main influence relationship between independent variables (career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership) and dependent variables (innovation performance). The specific steps are as follows: Taking the innovation performance as the dependent variable, first, the five control variables including gender, age, education, working years and position are introduced as independent variables for regression analysis to obtain Model 1. Then, based on Model 1, career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership are introduced into the model as independent variables, respectively, and Model 2, Model 3 and Model 4 are obtained. The specific regression analysis results are shown in Table 5.
It can be seen from Table 5 that the variance expansion coefficient values of all variables are less than 2, indicating that the collinearity between various variables is low and will not interfere in the results. According to Model 2, when career growth is introduced, the explanatory power of the regression model increases by 27.4%, which proves that career growth can have a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers (β = 0.335, p < 0.01). Hypothesis H1 is confirmed. It can be seen from Model 3 that the explanatory power of the regression model increases by 14.6% after the introduction of career calling, which proves that career calling has a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers (β = 0.172, p < 0.01). Hypothesis H2 is confirmed. Finally, Model 4 shows that when inclusive leadership is introduced into the regression model, the explanatory power of the model increases by 13.4%, which proves that inclusive leadership has a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers (β = 0.162, p < 0.01). Hypothesis H3 is confirmed.
This paper uses the bootstrap method proposed by Preacher and Hayes [105] to test the intermediary effect of the craftsman spirit. According to the relevant requirements of the bootstrap test for mediating effect, if the 95% deviation correction interval of mediating effect does not contain 0, it is proved that the mediating effect is significant. When the mediating effect is significant, if the 95% deviation correction interval of the direct effect contains 0, it means a complete mediating effect; otherwise, it is a partial mediating effect. In this paper, 5000 samples are selected for repeated sampling and the relevant inspection results are shown in Table 6 below.
As shown in Table 6, the direct and indirect effects of the craftsmanship spirit on the relationship between career growth and innovation performance of knowledge workers are positive and significant. Hypothesis H4 is confirmed. The craftsman spirit performs a partial mediation effect between career growth and innovation performance and the mediation effect accounts for 58.89% of the total effect. The direct and indirect effects of the craftsmanship spirit on the relationship between career calling and innovation performance of knowledge workers are positive and significant. Hypothesis H5 is confirmed. The craftsman spirit performs a partial mediation effect between career calling and innovation performance, and the mediation effect accounts for 31.23% of the total effect. The direct and indirect effects of the craftsmanship spirit on the relationship between inclusive leadership and innovation performance of knowledge workers are positive and significant. Hypothesis H6 is confirmed. The craftsman spirit performs a partial mediation effect between inclusive leadership and innovation performance, and the mediation effect accounts for 25.37% of the total effect.
This paper uses the hierarchical multiple regression analysis to test the regulatory influence of career calling and inclusive leadership on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers. The specific steps are as follows: First, the control variables are introduced into the regression equation. Then, the independent variables (career growth) and regulatory variables (career calling and inclusive leadership) are introduced into the regression equation. Third, after centralizing career growth, inclusive leadership and career calling and constructing product terms, put the interaction item (career growth× inclusive leadership; career growth × career calling) into the regression equation. Finally, put the interaction item (career growth × career calling × inclusive leadership) into the regression equation.
The hierarchical regression results are shown in Table 7. It can be seen from Model 4 that when the interactive terms of career growth and career calling are introduced into the regression model, the explanatory power of the model increases by 25.2% and the interactive terms of the two are significant (r = 0.114, p < 0.01). Hypothesis H7 is confirmed. It can be seen from Model 6 that when the interactive items of career growth and inclusive leadership are introduced into the regression model, the explanatory power of the model increases by 27.8% and the interactive items are significant (r = 0.063, p < 0.05). Hypothesis H8 is confirmed. It can be seen from Model 8 that when the three interactions of career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership are introduced into the regression model, the explanatory power of the model increases by 29.7%, which has a certain influence on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit (r = 0.132, p< 0.05). Hypothesis H9 is confirmed.
In order to intuitively show the regulatory influence of career calling and inclusive leadership, this paper uses the method proposed by Cohen [106] to draw the corresponding regulatory effect diagrams, as shown in Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4.
After empirical analysis, the hypothesis test results proposed in this paper are as follows (Table 8).

4. Discussion and Conclusions

4.1. Theoretical Contributions

This study constructs a high-performance work system from the perspective of non-material incentives and tests its influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers. The main theoretical contributions are as follows:
First, this paper expands the research level of the antecedent variables of innovation performance. Previous studies only analysed the influence on innovation performance from a single level variable. Based on AMO theory, this paper combines individual-level variable (career calling) and organizational-level variables (career growth and inclusive leadership) to build a cross-level high-performance work system and confirms that the three variables of this system can all have a significant positive impact on innovation performance of knowledge workers. The study’s conclusions provide a new ideal for scholars to further explore the strategies for improving innovation performance through multiple levels.
Second, this paper expands the research perspective of innovation performance. Previous studies mainly discussed strategies to improve the innovation performance of knowledge workers from the perspective of material incentives. Different from previous research perspectives, this paper confirms that the three non-material incentive variables of career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership can have a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers. Therefore, this paper also provides more ideas for scholars to study the improvement strategy of innovation performance from the perspective of non-material incentives in the future.
Third, the conclusions of this paper are helpful to reveal the transmission mechanism and boundary conditions between high-performance work system and innovation performance. The high-performance work system itself is very complex, and there are still some questions about the impact mechanism and path between it and the innovation performance [107]. The previous studies mainly discuss the influence mechanism of a certain factor on the innovation performance of knowledge workers, such as psychological capitals, perceived organization support, organizational innovation climate, etc. Different from previous studies, this paper analyzes the relationship between high-performance work system and innovation performance of knowledge workers from three perspectives of ability, motivation and opportunity based on AMO theory. In addition, this paper introduces the craftsman spirit as a mediating variable and introduces career calling and inclusive leadership as moderating variables. The conclusions of this research provide effective insights and new ideas for future scholars to study the mechanisms and paths of high-performance work system on innovation performance.
Fourth, this paper broadens the research field of the craftsman spirit. At present, the research of the craftsman spirit are usually focused on skilled workers. Therefore, many scholars note that the effectiveness of previous research conclusions on the craftsman spirit for other types of workers needs to be further investigated. This study extends the research object of the ‘craftsman spirit’ to the performance system of knowledge workers, which is conducive to broadening its external validity and provides support for the differential analysis of the connotation of the ‘craftsman spirit’ in different industries.

4.2. Practical Implications

This study confirms that the high-performance work system, which is composed of three variables—career growth, career calling and inclusive leadership—can have a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers. In addition, the craftsman spirit plays an intermediary role in the above-mentioned relationship. These findings of this study have certain positive meanings for solving some current problems in enterprise management practice. Based on the conclusions above and findings, this study proposes the following suggestions:
First, enterprises should attach great importance to the needs of career growth and development of knowledge workers. Managers should actively provide knowledge workers with more resources, such as more challenging jobs, more competence training opportunities and so on, to promote their capability for their work and to maintain their professional competitiveness. In addition, enterprises are also supposed to expand the career promotion channels of knowledge workers and to enhance their confidence for the future development of their own industries.
Second, enterprises should advocate for inclusive leadership style in management practices. Managers should have a deep understanding of the personalized needs of knowledge workers and create a relaxed, harmonious and warm working atmosphere for them. In addition, managers should often encourage and appreciate the contributions made by knowledge workers so that they can feel respected and valued. In particular, when workers are in the process of a job transfer or demotion, leaders should pay more attention to the negative psychological changes of them, take the initiative to communicate with them sincerely and help them complete the role of transition rapidly. Through the above-mentioned measures, managers can effectively meet the needs of knowledge workers for self-esteem, confidence and respected by others, thus promoting them to create more value for the enterprise.
Third, leaders should attach importance to the training and assessment of career calling and consciously create a good atmosphere that can motivate and protect the career calling of knowledge workers. For example, enterprises can provide material incentives for knowledge workers who have made outstanding contributions to technological innovation or management efficiency, such as cash, revenue commissions, equity, etc. On the other hand, enterprises can also promote the career calling of knowledge workers by spiritual incentives, such as encouraging their work and admiring their contributions and so on. The above-mentioned measures will help the knowledge workers to exert their creativity, so as to promote them to make more contributions to the enterprise. In addition, when recruiting workers, enterprises should also pay attention to the examination of their career calling, so as to help the enterprises to obtain more talents.
Fourth, managers should strengthen the spread of the craftsman spirit culture within the enterprise. Enterprises should consciously shape and cultivate the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers. At the same time, leaders should also set an example and actively create a positive and independent working environment for them, so as to promote them to practice the craftsman spirit of pursuing excellence and innovation in their work. For example, enterprises can try to summarize and publicize the outstanding work achievements and rigorous working attitudes of excellent knowledge workers and encourage other workers to learn from them.

5. Limitations and Direction for Future Research

Limited by some objective factors, this research still has the following aspects to be improved:
First, this paper only discusses the influence of high-performance work systems on the innovation performance of knowledge workers from the perspective of non-material incentives. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs [108], material needs are the fundamental needs of human beings and its impact on knowledge workers cannot be completely ignored. Therefore, in the future, we can investigate the influence of a high-performance work system on the innovation performance of knowledge workers from the comprehensive perspective of material incentives and non-material incentives.
Second, the data selected in this study are cross-sectional data, but the career growth of knowledge workers is a changing process. The data in this paper cannot dynamically compare the career growth of the workers in different stages. Therefore, in the future, panel data can be considered to facilitate the dynamic observation of the impact of knowledge workers’ career growth at different stages on innovation performance.

Author Contributions

Y.D. was responsible for the theme determination, finished study design and data analysis, and final draft. Y.L. participated in determining the theme and study design. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the China Association of Higher Education [21JXD07] and Shanghai Teacher’s Union of China [2022GHL24].

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all the subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. The data are not publicly available due to consent provided by participants on the use of confidential data.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the reviewers for their helpful comments on this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Research model.
Figure 1. Research model.
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Figure 2. The regulating influence of career calling on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit.
Figure 2. The regulating influence of career calling on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit.
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Figure 3. The regulating influence of inclusive leadership on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit.
Figure 3. The regulating influence of inclusive leadership on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit.
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Figure 4. The moderating influence of the interaction between career calling and inclusive leadership on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit.
Figure 4. The moderating influence of the interaction between career calling and inclusive leadership on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit.
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Table
Table 1. The origins of the scales.
Table 1. The origins of the scales.
VariablesNumber of ItemsAuthors
Career growth3Zhangmian and Zhangde. [101]
Career calling12Dobrow [58]
Inclusive leadership9Carmeli et al. [89]
Craftsman spirit8Liqun et al. [102]
Innovation performance8Hanyi et al. [103]
Table
Table 2. Descriptive statistical analysis of formal survey samples (n = 364).
Table 2. Descriptive statistical analysis of formal survey samples (n = 364).
Statistical ItemsFrequencyPercentageStatistical ItemsFrequencyPercentage
GenderMale19854.4Working Age5 years and below12033.0
Female16645.6
Age25 and under5715.76–10 years18450.5
26–35 years old23664.811–20 years5515.1
36–45 years old5515.121 years and above51.4
46–55 years old143.8PositionGrassroots staff28478.0
56 years and over20.5
EducationCollege degree or below154.1Grassroots Manager5414.8
Bachelor degree25570.1Middle manager226.0
Master’s degree8222.5
Doctorate123.3Senior management41.1
Table
Table 3. Reliability and Validity Test (n = 364).
Table 3. Reliability and Validity Test (n = 364).
ConstructCodeItemFactor
Loadings
Career
Growth
α = 0.843
AVE = 0.648
CR = 0.846		CG1The company can provide me with the opportunity to keep up with new trends related to work.0.716
CG2The company can provide me with relevant resources to learn new knowledge or improve professional skills.0.860
CG3The company enables me to continuously grow and improve in my work.0.831
Career
Calling
α = 0.929
AVE = 0.599
CR = 0.931		CC1I am full of enthusiasm for my work.0.712
CC2Being in my profession gives me great satisfaction.0.768
CC3When describing who I am to others, I usually think of my career first.0.770
CC4My career will always be a part of my life.0.787
CC5I feel a sense of mission about my career.0.747
CC6In a sense, my career has always been in my heart.0.762
CC7Even if I didn’t do this job, I often think about doing it.0.818
CC8Joining my current career makes my life more meaningful.0.798
CC9Engaging in my career can deeply touch my heart and bring me joy.0.796
Inclusive
Leadership
α = 0.838
AVE = 0.663
CR = 0.782		IL1My leaders are willing to listen to new ideas.0.664
IL2My leadership focuses on new opportunities to improve their work.0.745
IL3My leader is willing to discuss the desired goals and new ways to achieve them.0.710
IL4When I encounter problems, my leader will provide guidance at any time.0.799
IL5My leader is a real member of the team (it can be said that he/she can be found at any time).0.835
IL6I can find leaders to consult professional problems at any time.0.822
IL7My leader is willing to listen to my request.0.802
IL8My leader encourages me to go to him/her when I encounter sudden or emerging problems.0.695
IL9I can easily approach my leader and discuss sudden or emerging problems with him/her.0.899
Craftsman spirit
α = 0.866
AVE = 0.686
CR = 0.878		CS1Master post knowledge and skills.0.687
CS2Pay attention to detail management.0.736
CS3Choose an effective way to work.0.823
CS4Insist on studying and improving the existing skills and working mode.0.785
CS5Pursue the perfection and perfection of products.0.661
CS6Existing work is a lifelong career and value pursuit.0.892
CS7Take the initiative to put forward suggestions to improve product quality.0.840
CS8Proactively meet or exceed customer needs for products.0.876
Innovation
performance
α = 0.854
AVE = 0.587
CR = 0.863		IP1I will provide new ideas to improve the existing situation.0.691
IP2I can actively support innovative ideas.0.724
IP3I often get praise from my superiors for my innovative ideas.0.820
IP4I can turn innovative ideas into practical applications.0.830
IP5I will put forward some original solutions to problems through learning.0.556
IP6I can introduce innovative ideas in a systematic way.0.654
Goodness of fit of the model: Χ2/df = 1.866, RMSEA = 0.053; CFI = 0.913; NFI = 0.933; GFI = 0.947.
Table
Table 4. Descriptive statistical characteristics and correlation coefficient matrix (n = 364).
Table 4. Descriptive statistical characteristics and correlation coefficient matrix (n = 364).
VariablesMeanS.D.12345678910
1 Gender1.460.481
2 Age2.090.710.0361
3 educations2.250.580.0120.027 *1
4 working ages1.850.720.0300.821 *−0.1121
5 job level1.300.630.0310.714 *0.0940.563 *1
6 CG3.1110.05−0.075 *−0.0720.037−0.072−0.0971
7 CC3.0410.22−0.0140.0560.1530.0270.043 *0.450 **1
8 IL3.1800.880.056−0.139−0.091−0.071−0.1510.322 **0.399 **1
9 CS2.8800.940.128 *0.0640.132 **0.0730.0350.432 **0.480 **0.429 **1
10 IP2.9410.020.175 *0.102−0.191 *0.0680.0760.321 **0.506 **0.544 **0.496 **1
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01; CG = career growth; CC = career calling; IL = inclusive leadership; CS = craftsman spirit; IP = innovation performance.
Table
Table 5. Test results of AMO and innovation performance (n = 364).
Table 5. Test results of AMO and innovation performance (n = 364).
VariablesInnovation Performance
Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Gender0.163 *0.0740.113 *0.124 *
Age−0.088−0.094−0.090−0.914
Education−0.128 *−0.117 *−0.097 *−0.144 *
Working years0.2610.2490.2620.236
Position0.0120.0110.0080.016
Career growth 0.335 **
Career calling 0.172 **
Inclusive leadership 0.162 **
R20.0210.2870.1640.152
Adjusted R20.0190.2820.1570.147
∆R20.0190.2740.1460.134
F110.975 *190.458 **130.773 **110.274 **
VIF1.002–2.2891.003–2.2911.002–2.4121.006–2.291
Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Table
Table 6. Bootstrap mediating effect test results (n = 364).
Table 6. Bootstrap mediating effect test results (n = 364).
PathEffectCoefficientStandard Error95% Deviation Corrected Confidence IntervalProportion in Total Effect
CG→CS→IPDircet0.1110.042[0.028, 0.193]41.11%
Indirect0.1590.026[0.111, 0.212]58.89%
Total0.2700.042[0.187, 0.351]-
CC→CS→IPDircet0.3480.049[0.252, 0.444]68.77%
Indirect0.1580.026[0.107, 0.211]31.23%
Total0.5060.045[0.417, 0.596]-
IL→CS→IPDircet0.4030.046[0.314, 0.493]74.63%
Indirect0.1370.026[0.091, 0.194]25.37%
Total0.5400.044[0.455, 0.627]-
Note: CG = career growth; CC = career calling; IL = inclusive leadership; CS = craftsman spirit; IP = innovation performance. The 95% confidence interval was tested by percentile test.
Table
Table 7. Hierarchical regression results of the craftsman spirit (n = 364).
Table 7. Hierarchical regression results of the craftsman spirit (n = 364).
VariablesCraftsman Spirit
Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4Model 5Model 6Model 7Model 8
Gender0.1250.0570.0520.0640.0580.0410.0510.050
Age0.0250.0210.0180.0160.0220.0190.0270.024
Education−0.089−0.071−0.077−0.089−0.083−0.092−0.083−0.091
Working Years0.177 **0.161 *0.145 **0.143 *0.150 **0.1830.167 *0.167 **
Position−0.008−0.012−0.009−0.009−0.015−0.008−0.017−0.013
Main effect
CG 0.443 *0.432 **0.417 **0.405 **0.386 **0.365 **0.346 **
CC 0.097 *0.088 0.0270.016
IL 0.172 *0.158 *0.133 *0.116 *
Regulatory effect
CG × CC 0.114 ** 0.0760.063
CG × IL 0.063 *0.0200.017
CC × IL 0.048−0.023
Interactive Regulatory Utility
CG × CC × IL 0.132 *
R20.0750.2420.2590.2710.2840.2930.3020.315
Adjusted R20.0710.2360.2550.2660.2730.2860.2930.309
∆R20.0670.2320.2470.2520.2630.2780.2860.297
F60.688 **230.108 **210.680 **200.074 **220.184 **210.046 **180.941 **170.357 **
VIF10.023–20.31110.013–20.35510.012–20.21110.106–20.28110.113–20.15310.223–20.41110.212–20.43310.266–20.307
Notes: CG = Career growth; CC = career calling; IL = Inclusive leadership; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Table
Table 8. Summary of hypotheses tests.
Table 8. Summary of hypotheses tests.
Research HypothesisResult
H1. The career growth has a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers.Support
H2. The career calling has a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers.Support
H3. Inclusive leadership has a significant positive influence on the innovation performance of knowledge workers.Support
H4. The craftsman spirit plays an intermediary role between career growth and innovation performance of knowledge workers.Support
H5. The craftsman spirit plays an intermediary role between career calling and innovation performance of knowledge workers.Support
H6. The craftsman spirit plays an intermediary role between inclusive leadership and innovation performance of knowledge workers.Support
H7. Career calling has a positive regulating influence on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers.Support
H8. Inclusive leadership has a positive regulating influence on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers.Support
H9. The interaction between career calling and inclusive leadership has a positive regulating influence on the relationship between career growth and the craftsman spirit of knowledge workers.Support
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Ding, Y.; Liu, Y. The Influence of High-Performance Work Systems on the Innovation Performance of Knowledge Workers. Sustainability 2022, 14, 15014. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215014

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Ding Y, Liu Y. The Influence of High-Performance Work Systems on the Innovation Performance of Knowledge Workers. Sustainability. 2022; 14(22):15014. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215014

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Ding, Yu, and Yijun Liu. 2022. "The Influence of High-Performance Work Systems on the Innovation Performance of Knowledge Workers" Sustainability 14, no. 22: 15014. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215014

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