Seaweed as a Safe Nutraceutical Food: How to Increase Human Welfare?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Seaweeds as a Possible Nutraceutical Food Source
2.1. A Good Source of Nutrients?
2.2. A Danger to Human Welfare?
3. Seaweed as Food: Regulations
How the Regulations Can Make the Seaweed Secure, Reducing the Risks to Human Health
4. Seaweed as a Future Secure Food
4.1. Seaweed Aquaculture
4.2. Seaweed Storage
4.3. Seaweed Commercial Products
4.4. Guidelines for Food Safety in Industry
4.4.1. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs)
- Ensure food safety: The fundamental goal of GMPs is to ensure food product safety. GMPs ensure that food items are free of contamination, adulteration, and other potentially dangerous chemicals [100].
- Meeting regulatory requirements: GMP implementation is a legal obligation in several countries. Companies that do not follow GMPs face legal action, penalties, and closure [100].
- Improving brand reputation: Companies that use GMPs are seen as responsible and dependable. This boosts the company’s reputation and consumer trust [100].
- Improving efficiency: Using GMPs may help businesses improve efficiency by decreasing waste, minimizing downtime, and increasing overall output [100].
- Improving product quality: Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) guarantee that food items are of high quality and fulfill customer expectations. This can boost consumer happiness and loyalty [100].
4.4.2. HACCPs
4.4.3. ISO 22000
5. Seaweed Food’s Real Potential: How Can Be Checked?
5.1. Chemical and Biochemical Techniques: New Approaches
5.1.1. Classical Techniques
5.1.2. New Technological Approaches
UV/VIS Spectroscopy
FTIR-ATR
NIRS
E-Nose
E-Eye
E-Tongue
Hyperspectral Imaging
X-ray Fluorescence
5.2. Bioavailability
5.2.1. Seaweed Bioavailability Analysis
Seaweed Proteins
Seaweed Polysaccharides
Seaweed Lipids
Seaweed Minerals
6. Future Road into Seaweed Food Safety and Nutraceutical Potential
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
% | Percentage |
Ag-NPs | Silver nanoparticles |
AnPs | Ascophyllum nodosum |
AOAC | Association of Official Analytical Chemists |
BP-NN | Back-propagation neural networks |
Ca | Calcium |
Cl | Chloride |
Co | Cobalt |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide |
Cu | Copper |
DPPH | 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl |
E401 | Sodium alginate |
E407a | Transformed Eucheuma algae |
EAAs | Essential amino acids |
EC | Commission Regulation |
EC | Electrochemical |
EDXRF | Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence |
ELISA | Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
EPA | Environmental Protection Agency |
EU | European Union |
FA | Fatty acids |
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
Fe | Iron |
FSMS | Food Safety Management System |
FTIR-ATR | Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy |
GC-MS | Gas chromatography-mass spectrometer |
GMP | Good Manufacturing Practices |
HACCP | Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point |
HIS | Hue, saturation, intensity |
HLS | High-level structure |
HPLC | High-performance liquid chromatography |
HSB | Hue, saturation, brightness |
HSI | Hyperspectral imaging |
HSL | Hue, saturation, lightness |
HSV | Hue, saturation, value |
I | Iodine |
ICP | Inductively coupled plasma |
ICP-MS/ICP-OES | Inductively coupled plasma mass/spectroscopy inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy |
INFOGEST | COST INFOGEST network standardized protocol for human digestion assay |
K | Potassium |
LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS | Liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detection and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry |
Mg | Magnesium |
Mn | Manganese |
Mo | Molybdenum |
MS | Mass spectrometry |
MUFAs | Monounsaturated fatty acids |
Na | Sodium |
NEAAs | Non-essential amino acids |
NIRS | Near-infrared spectroscopy |
P | Phosphorus |
PCR | Polymerase chain reaction |
PDO | Protected designation of origin |
pH | Potential of hydrogen |
PHPs | Pyropia haitanensis |
PUFAs | Polyunsaturated fatty acids |
RGB | Red–green–blue |
S | Sulfur |
SCFAs | Short-chain fatty acids |
Se | Selenium |
SFAs | Saturated fatty acids |
TVC | Total viable count |
UV-Vis | Absorption spectroscopy in ultraviolet and visible |
VOCs | Volatile organic compounds |
WHO | World Health Organization |
WWII | World War II |
XRF | X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy |
Zn | Zinc |
μ-XRF | Micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy |
ω | Ômega |
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Species | Common Name | Proteins | Ashes | Dietary Fibers | Carbohydrates | Lipids |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alaria esculenta (P) | Winged Kelp | 9–20 | - | 42.86 | 46–51 | 1–2 |
Caulerpa lentillifera (C) | Green Caviar | 10–13 | 24–37 | 33 | 38–59 | 0.86–1.11 |
C. racemosa (C) | Sea Grapes | 17.8–18.4 | 7–19 | 64.9 | 33–41 | 9.8 |
Chondrus crispus (R) | Irish Moss | 11–21 | 21.08 | 10–34 | 55–68 | 1.0–3.0 |
Codium fragile (C) | Dead Man’s Fingers | 8–11 | 21–39 | 5.1 | 39–67 | 0.5–1.5 |
Eisenia bicyclis (P) | Arame | 7.5 | 9.72 | 10–12 | 60.6 | 0.1 |
Fucus spiralis (P) | Spiral Wrack | 10.77 | - | 63.88 | - | - |
F. vesiculosus (P) | Bladder Wrack | 3–14 | 14–30 | 45–59 | 46.8 | 1.9 |
Gracilaria chilensis (R) | Penco | 13.7 | 18.9 | - | 66.1 | 1.3 |
Himanthalia elongata (P) | Sea Spaghetti | 5–15 | 30–36 | 33–37 | 44–61 | 0.5–1.1 |
Laminaria digitata (P) | Oarweed | 8–15 | 37.59 | 37.3 | 48 | 1.0 |
Palmaria palmata (R) | Dulse | 8–35 | 15–30 | 28.57 | 46–56 | 0.7–3 |
Porphyra umbilicalis (R) | Purple laver | 29–39 | 12 | 29–35 | 43 | 0.3 |
Pyropia tenera (R) | Nori | 33–47 | 20.5 | 12–35 | 44.3 | 0.7 |
Pyropia yezoensis (R) | Nori Seaweed | 31–44 | 7.8 | 48.6 | 44.4 | 2.1 |
Saccharina japonica (P) | Sweet Kelp | 7.5 | 26.63 | 10–36 | 51.9 | 1.0 |
S. latissima (P) | Sugar Kelp | 6–26 | 34.78 | 30 | 52–61 | 0.5–1.1 |
Sargassum fusiforme (P) | Hizikia | 11.6 | 19.77 | 17–62 | 30.6 | 1.4 |
Ulva compressa (C) | Tape Weed | 21–27 | 18.6 | 33–45 | 48.2 | 0.3 |
U. lactuca (C) | Sea Lettuce | 10–25 | 12.9 | 29–38 | 36–43 | 0.6–1.6 |
U. australis (C) | Lacy Sea Lettuce | 20–26 | - | - | 47.0 | - |
U. rigida (C) | Glasán | 18–19 | 28.6 | 38–41 | 43–56 | 0.9–2.0 |
U. reticulata (C) | Ribbon Sea Lettuce | 17–20 | - | 65.7 | 50–58 | 1.7–2.3 |
Undaria pinnatifida (P) | Wakame | 12–23 | 26–39 | 16–46 | 45–51 | 1.5–4.5 |
Typology | Techniques | Supported Analysis |
---|---|---|
Spectroscopy | UV/VIS Spectroscopy | Grape-must caramel in vinegar; edible oils degradation; antioxidant compounds |
FTIR-ATR | Detect mycotoxins; detect adulteration in dairy products; authenticity of meat and meat products; identify pathogenic bacteria; quantify sugars; characterize polysaccharides | |
NIRS | Detect meat adulteration; fish quality; analyze constituents in fruits, oils and milk products; quantify adulterated oils; analyze rheological parameters; determine protein concentration and nutritional composition | |
Electrochemical | E-Nose | Detect food spoilage due to bacterial and fungal infections; monitor fermentation processes; detect fraud in food products; monitor the oxidation process; determine the shelf life of macroalgae |
E-Eye | Classification of olive oil; identify food fraud | |
E-tongue | Detection of tetracycline residues in milk; microbiological quality of fish samples; sensory analysis of vegetable milk; quality parameters; characteristics of aqueous extracts from seaweed | |
Imaging | Hyperspectral imaging | Detect fecal contamination; detect chemical residues and contaminants; detection of foodborne pathogens |
Fluorescence | X-ray Fluorescence | Seaweed biomass products; mineral composition of milk; analyze plant material; determination of cadmium; evaluate algae-based supplements; heavy metal contamination |
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Cotas, J.; Tavares, J.O.; Silva, R.; Pereira, L. Seaweed as a Safe Nutraceutical Food: How to Increase Human Welfare? Nutraceuticals 2024, 4, 323-362. https://doi.org/10.3390/nutraceuticals4030020
Cotas J, Tavares JO, Silva R, Pereira L. Seaweed as a Safe Nutraceutical Food: How to Increase Human Welfare? Nutraceuticals. 2024; 4(3):323-362. https://doi.org/10.3390/nutraceuticals4030020
Chicago/Turabian StyleCotas, João, Joana O. Tavares, Rita Silva, and Leonel Pereira. 2024. "Seaweed as a Safe Nutraceutical Food: How to Increase Human Welfare?" Nutraceuticals 4, no. 3: 323-362. https://doi.org/10.3390/nutraceuticals4030020