Climate Change and Children’s Health—A Call for Research on What Works to Protect Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Impacts | Exposures | Outcomes |
---|---|---|
Direct impacts | Air pollution | Decreased lung function |
Lung cancer | ||
Asthma | ||
Birth defects | ||
Other respiratory disease | ||
Mortality | ||
Floods | Drowning | |
Injury | ||
Physical and mental trauma | ||
Children neglect or abuse | ||
Droughts | Mental disorders | |
Infant deaths | ||
Heat waves | Renal disease | |
Respiratory disease | ||
Electrolyte imbalance | ||
Fever | ||
Possible birth defects | ||
Indirect impacts | Decreased water | Respiratory disease |
Diarrhea | ||
Toxicant exposure | Reproductive disorder | |
Immune dysfunction | ||
Neural System dysfunction | ||
Cancer | ||
Food shortage | Malnutrition | |
Mortality | ||
Population displacement | Disrupting health care | |
Loss of education | ||
Allergic disease | ||
Infectious disease |
2. Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Direct Impact
3.1.1. Air Pollution
3.1.2. Weather-Related Disasters
3.1.3. Heat Waves
3.2. Indirect Impacts
3.2.1. Decreased Water Quality and Quantity
3.2.2. Food Supply Shortage
3.2.3. Toxicant Exposure
3.2.4. Population Displacement
3.2.5. Infectious Diseases
3.2.6. Allergic Diseases
3.3. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Children
3.4. Knowledge Gaps
3.4.1. The Modifiers
3.4.2. The Appropriate Outcome Measures
3.4.3. Children’s Disease Burden under Climate Change Scenarios
3.4.4. The Situations in Low-Income Countries
3.4.5. The Most Cost-Effective Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Children
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Conflict of Interest
References
- IPCC, Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007.
- UNICEF, Climate Change and Children: A Human Security Challenge; Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy, UNICEF and UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre: New York, NY, USA, 2008.
- Bunyavanich, S.; Landrigan, C.P.; McMichael, A.J.; Epstein, P.R. The impact of climate change on child health. Ambul. Pediatr. 2003, 3, 44–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007.
- McMichael, A.; Butler, C. Climate change, health, and development goals. Lancet 2004, 364, 2004–2006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patz, J.A.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.; Holloway, T.; Foley, J.A. Impact of regional climate change on human health. Nature 2005, 438, 310–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sheffield, P.E.; Landrigan, P.J. Global climate change and children’s health: Threats and strategies for prevention. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 119, 291–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Committee on Environmental Health. Ambient air pollution: Health hazards to children. Pediatrics 2004, 114, 1699–1707. [CrossRef]
- Landrigan, P.; Garg, A. Children are not little adults. In Children’s Health and the Environment—A Global Perspective; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Akachi, Y.; Goodman, D.; Parker, D. Global Climate Change and Child Health: A Review of Pathways, Impacts and Measures to Improve the Evidence Base; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- McKibbin, W.J.; Wilcoxen, P.J. Climate policy and uncertainty: The roles of adaptation versus mitigation. In Brookings Discussion Papers in International Economics; The Brookings Institution: Washington, DC, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- IPCC, “Human Health” in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.
- Jacob, D.; Winner, D. Effect of climate change on air quality. Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43, 51–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, H.H.; Zhou, J.; Fuentes, M. Impact of climate change on ambient ozone level and mortality in southeastern United States. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, 2866–2880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mathieu-Nolf, M. Poisons in the air: A cause of chronic disease in children. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 2002, 40, 483–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), Particle Pollution and Your Health; US EPA: Washington, DC, USA, 2003; EPA-452/F-03-001.
- Gauderman, W.J.; Avol, E.; Gilliland, F.; Vora, H.; Thomas, D.; Berhane, K.; McConnell, R.; Kuenzli, N.; Lurmann, F.; Rappaport, E.; et al. The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004, 351, 1057–1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodriguez, C.; Tonkin, R.; Heyworth, J.; Kusel, M.; De Klerk, N.; Sly, P.D.; Franklin, P.; Runnion, T.; Blockley, A.; Landau, L.; et al. The relationship between outdoor air quality and respiratory symptoms in young children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2007, 17, 351–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shea, K. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health. Global climate change and children’s health. Pediatrics 2007, 120, 1149–1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), Health Effects of Wood Smoke; US EPA: Washington, DC, USA, 2008.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), National Center for Environmental Assessment-RTP Division. In Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter: First External Review Draft; US EPA: Washington, DC, USA, 2008.
- Sheffield, P.E.; Knowlton, K.; Carr, J.L.; Kinney, P.L. Modeling of regional climate change effects on ground-level ozone and childhood asthma. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2011, 41, 251–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), Ozone: Good up High, Bad Nearby; US EPA: Washington, DC, USA, 2003; EPA-451/K-03-001.
- Committee on the Effect of Climate Change on Indoor Air Quality and Public Health, Climate Change, the Indoor Environment, and Health; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
- WHO. Indoor Air Pollution and Household Energy. Available online: http://www.who.int/heli/risks/indoorair/indoorair/en/index.html (accessed on 5 September 2012).
- Smith, K.R. National burden of disease in India from indoor air pollution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 13286–13293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schiermeier, Q. Climate and weather: Extreme measures. Nature 2011, 477, 148–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pronczuk, J.; Surdu, S. Children’s environmental health in the twenty-first century. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2008, 1140, 143–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shaw, J.A.; Applegate, B.; Schorr, C. Twenty-one month follow-up study of school-age children exposed to hurricane Andrew. J. Am. Acad. Child. Psychiatry 1996, 35, 359–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kar, N.; Mohapatra, P.K.; Nayak, K.C.; Pattanaik, P.; Swain, S.P.; Kar, H.C. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents one year after a super-cyclone in Orissa, India: Exploring cross-cultural validity and vulnerability factors. BMC Psychiatry 2007, 7. [Google Scholar]
- Ahern, M.; Kovats, R.S.; Wilkinson, P.; Few, R.; Matthies, F. Global health impacts of floods: Epidemiologic evidence. Epidemiol. Rev. 2005, 27, 36–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Curtis, T.; Miller, B.C.; Berry, E.H. Changes in reports and incidence of child abuse following natural disasters. Child. Abuse Negl. 2000, 24, 1151–1162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keenan, H.T.; Marshall, S.W.; Nocera, M.A.; Runyan, D.K. Increased incidence of inflicted traumatic brain injury in children after a natural disaster. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2004, 26, 189–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Climate Change and the Health of Children. Available online: http://yosemite.Epa.Gov/ochp/ochpweb.Nsf/content/climate.htm (accessed on 5 September 2012).
- Pradhan, E.K.; West, K.P.; Katz, J.; LeClerq, S.C.; Khatry, S.K.; Shrestha, S.R. Risk of flood-related mortality in Nepal. Disasters 2007, 31, 57–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szpilman, D.; Bierens, J.J.L.M.; Handley, A.J.; Orlowski, J.P. Drowning. N. Engl. J. Med. 2012, 366, 2102–2110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO, Injuries and Violence Prevention: Noncommunicable Diseases and Mental Health: Fact Sheet on Drowning; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2003.
- UNDP, Human Development Report 2007/2008; UNDP: New York, NY, USA, 2007.
- Back, E.; Cameron, C. Our Climate, Our Children, Our Responsibility. The Implications of Climate Change for World’s Children; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Conserve Africa. Breaking the Vicious Cycle of Poverty and Environmental Degradation in Africa; Poverty and Environment in Africa: An Overview. 2006. Available online: http://www.Conserveafrica.Org.Uk/desertification.html (accessed on 5 September 2012).
- McMichael, A.J.; Woodruff, R.E.; Hales, S. Climate change and human health: Present and future risks. Lancet 2006, 367, 859–869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arlappa, N.; Venkaiah, K.; Brahmam, G.N.V. Severe drought and the vitamin a status of rural pre-school children in India. Disasters 2011, 35, 577–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meehl, G.A.; Tebaldi, C. More intense, more frequent, and longer lasting heat waves in the 21st century. Science 2004, 305, 994–997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knowlton, K.; Rotkin-Ellman, M.; King, G.; Margolis, H.G.; Smith, D.; Solomon, G.; Trent, R.; English, P. The 2006 California heat wave: Impacts on hospitalizations and emergency department visits. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 117, 61–67. [Google Scholar]
- Leonardi, G.S.; Hajat, S.; Kovats, R.S.; Smith, G.E.; Cooper, D.; Gerard, E. Syndromic surveillance use to detect the early effects of heat-waves: An analysis of NHS direct data in England. Soz. Praventivmed. 2006, 51, 194–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nitschke, M.; Tucker, G.; Hansen, A.; Williams, S.; Zhang, Y.; Bi, P. Impact of two recent extreme heat episodes on morbidity and mortality in Adelaide, south Australia: A case-series analysis. Environ. Health 2011, 10. [Google Scholar]
- Naughton, M.P.; Henderson, A.; Mirabelli, M.C.; Kaiser, R.; Wilhelm, J.L.; Kieszak, S.M.; Rubin, C.H.; McGeehin, M.A. Heat-related mortality during a 1999 heat wave in Chicago. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2002, 22, 221–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kovats, R.S.; Hajat, S.; Wilkinson, P. Contrasting patterns of mortality and hospital admissions during hot weather and heat waves in Greater London, UK. Occup. Environ. Med. 2004, 61, 893–898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Basu, R.; Malig, B.; Ostro, B. High ambient temperature and the risk of preterm delivery. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2010, 172, 1108–1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strand, L.B.; Barnett, A.G.; Tong, S. Maternal exposure to ambient temperature and the risks of preterm birth and stillbirth in Brisbane, Australia. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 175, 99–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hajat, S.; Armstrong, B.; Baccini, M.; Biggeri, A.; Bisanti, L.; Russo, A.; Paldy, A.; Menne, B.; Kosatsky, T. Impact of high temperature on mortality: Is there an added heat wave effect? Epidemiology 2006, 17, 632–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gasparrini, A.; Armstrong, B. The impact of heat waves on mortality. Epidemiology 2011, 22, 68–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salvante, K.G.; Walzem, R.L.; Williams, T.D. What comes first, the zebra finch or the egg: Temperature-dependent reproductive, physiological and behavioural plasticity in egg-laying zebra finche. J. Exp. Biol. 2007, 210, 1325–1334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Talmage, S.C.; Gobler, C.J. Effects of elevated temperature and carbon dioxide on the growth and survival of larvae and juveniles of three species of northwest Atlantic bivalves. PLoS ONE 2011, 6. [Google Scholar]
- Daily, G. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.
- Curriero, F.C.; Patz, J.A.; Rose, J.B.; Lele, S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948–1994. Am. J. Public Health 2001, 91, 1194–1199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Climate Change Futures—Health, Ecological and Economic Dimensions; The Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School: Boston, MA, USA, 2006.
- Woodruff, R.; McMichael, A.J. Climate change and human health: All affected, but some more than others. Soc. Alter. 2004, 23, 17–22. [Google Scholar]
- Prüss-Üstün, A.; Bos, R.; Gore, F.; Bartram, J. Safer Water Better Health: Costs Benefits and Sustainability of Interventions to Protect and Promote Health; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- McMichael, A.J. Impact of climatic and other environmental changes on food production and population health in the coming decades. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2001, 60, 195–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goldbloom, R. Growth failure in infancy. Pediatr. Rev. 1987, 9, 57–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Department of Agriculture, United States, Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals: Women 19–50 Years and Their Children 1–5 years, 4 days, 1985. Human Nutrition Information Service: Hyattsville, MD, USA, 1987.
- Cohen, M.; Tirado, C.; Aberman, N. Impact of Climate Change and Bioenergy on Nutrition; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Sheridan, B. The implications of climate change for children in lower-income countries. Child. Youth Environ. 2008, 18, 71–98. [Google Scholar]
- Booth, S.; Zeller, D. Mercury, food webs, and marine mammals: Implications of diet and climate change for human health. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 521–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noyes, P.D.; McElwee, M.K.; Miller, H.D.; Clark, B.W.; Van Tiem, L.A.; Walcott, K.C.; Erwin, K.N.; Levin, E.D. The toxicology of climate change: Environmental contaminants in a warming world. Environ. Int. 2009, 35, 971–986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wania, F.; MacKay, D. Tracking the distribution of persistent organic pollutants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1996, 30, A390–A396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meyer, T.; Wania, F. Organic contaminant amplification during snowmelt. Water Res. 2008, 42, 1847–1865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Macdonald, R.W.; Mackay, D.; Li, Y.F.; Hickie, B. How will global climate change affect risks from long-range transport of persistent organic pollutants? Human Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J. 2003, 9, 643–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Macdonald, R.; Mackay, D.; Hickie, B. Contaminant amplification in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 36, A456–A462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brent, R.; Weitzman, M.; Balk, S.; Lanphear, B.; Landrigan, P.; Reigart, R. The vulnerability, sensitivity, and resiliency of the developing embryo, infant, child, and adolescent to the effects of environmental chemicals, drugs, and physical agents as compared to the adult. Pediatrics 2004, 113, 932–1172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crimmins, E.M.; Finch, C.E. Infection, inflammation, height, and longevity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 498–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Victora, C.; Adair, L.; Fall, C.; Hallal, P.; Martorell, R.; Richter, L. Maternal and child undernutrition: Consequences for adult health and human capital. Lancet 2008, 371, 340–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO. Reducing Environmental Risks for Our Children. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Children’s Health and the Environment, Vienna, Austria, 10–12 June 2007.
- Landrigan, P. What’s Getting into Our Children? Available online: http://healthychild.org/blog/comments/whats_getting_into_our_children/ (accessed on 5 September 2012).
- WHO, Health Environment for Children. Initiating an Alliance for Action; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
- Cohen, J.T.; Bellinger, D.C.; Shaywitz, B.A. A quantitative analysis of prenatal methyl mercury exposure and cognitive development. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2005, 29, 353–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNEP, Inventory of Information Sources on Chemicals: Persistent Organic Pollutants; UNEP: Geneva, Switzerland, 1999.
- UNEP, Regional Workshop on the Implementation of the Stockholm Convention and Synergies with Others Related Agreements. UNEP: Cairo, Egypt, 2005.
- Warner, K.; Afifi, T.; Dun, O.; Stal, M.; Schmidl, S. Human Security, Climate Change, and Environmentally Induced Migration; Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP): Athens, Greece, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Gemenne, F. Climate-induced population displacements in a 4 °C+ world. Philos. Transact. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2011, 369, 182–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UN, Climate Change, Human Rights and Forced Human Displacement: Case Studies as Indicators of Durable Solutions. In The 60th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Human Rights Day; UN: Canberra, Australia, 2008.
- Kristiansen, M.; Mygind, A.; Krasnik, A. Health effects of migration. Dan. Med. Bull. 2007, 54, 46–47. [Google Scholar]
- Pronczuk, J. Where the Child Learns. In Children’s Health and the Environment—A Global Perspective: A Resource Manual for the Health Sector; Pronczuk-Garbino, J., Ed.; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Gerba, C.P.; Rose, J.B.; Haas, C.N. Sensitive populations: Who is at the greatest risk? Int. J. Food Microbiol. 1996, 30, 113–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007; pp. 391–431.
- Loevinsohn, M.E. Climatic warming and increased malaria incidence in Rwanda. Lancet 1994, 343, 714–718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rogers, D.; Randolph, S. The global spread of malaria in a future, warmer world. Science 2000, 289, 1763–1765. [Google Scholar]
- Ishak, H.; Miyagi, I.; Toma, T.; Kamimura, K. Breeding habitats of Aedes aegypti (L) and Aedes. albopictus (Skuse) in villages of Barru, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 1997, 28, 844–850. [Google Scholar]
- Snow, R.; Craig, M.; Deichmann, U.; Marsh, K. Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa’s non-pregnant population. Bull. World Health Organ. 1999, 77, 624–640. [Google Scholar]
- WHO, World Malaria Report 2005; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2005.
- Gilca, R.; Deceuninck, G.; De Serres, G.; Boulianne, N.; Sauvageau, C.; Quach, C.; Boucher, F.D.; Skowronski, D.M. Effectiveness of pandemic H1N1 vaccine against influenza-related hospitalization in children. Pediatrics 2011, 128, e1084–e1091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LaForce, F.; Konde, K.; Viviani, S.; Préziosi, M. The Meningitis vaccine project. Vaccine 2007, 25, A97–A100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baena-Cagnani, C.; Badellino, H. Diagnosis of allergy and asthma in childhood. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 2011, 11, 71–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eder, W.; Ege, M.J.; von Mutius, E. The asthma epidemic. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 355, 2226–2235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sheffield, P.E.; Weinberger, K.R.; Kinney, P.L. Climate change, aeroallergens, and pediatric allergic disease. Mt. Sinai J. Med. 2011, 78, 78–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singer, B.D.; Ziska, L.H.; Frenz, D.A.; Gebhard, D.E.; Straka, J.G. Increasing Amb a 1 content in common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) pollen as a function of rising atmospheric CO2 concentration. Func. Plant Biol. 2005, 32, 667–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wayne, P.; Foster, S.; Connolly, J.; Bazzaz, F.; Epstein, P. Production of allergenic pollen by ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) is increased in CO2-enriched atmospheres. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2002, 88, 279–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolf, J.; O’Neill, N.R.; Rogers, C.A.; Muilenberg, M.L.; Ziska, L.H. Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations amplify alternaria alternata sporulation and total antigen production. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, 1223–1228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ziska, L.H.; Gebhard, D.E.; Frenz, D.A.; Faulkner, S.; Singer, B.D.; Straka, J.G. Cities as Harbingers of climate change: Common ragweed, urbanization, and public health. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2003, 111, 290–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shea, K.M.; Truckner, R.T.; Weber, R.W.; Peden, D.B. Climate change and allergic disease. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2008, 122, 443–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beggs, P.J.; Bambrick, H.J. Is the global rise of asthma an early impact of anthropogenic climate change? Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 915–919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO, Reducing Risks and Promoting Healthy Life; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
- Constructing Change: Accelerating Energy Efficiency in India’s Building Market; Administrative Staff College of India and Natural Resources Defense Council: Hyderabad, India, 2012.
- Zimmerman, R.; Faris, C. Climate change mitigation and adaptation in North American cities. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2011, 3, 181–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bergeron, M.; Bahr, R.; Bärtsch, P.; Bourdon, L.; Calbet, J.; Carlsen, K.; Castagna, O.; González-Alonso, J.; Lundby, C.; Maughan, R.; et al. International Olympic Committee consensus statement on thermoregulatory and altitude challenges for high-level athletes. Br. J. Sports Med. 2012, 46, 770–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huq, S.; Reid, H. Community-Based Adaptation: A Vital Approach to the Threat Climate Change Poses to the Poor; International Institute for Environment and Development: London, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Berrang-Ford, L.; Ford, J.D.; Paterson, J. Are we adapting to climate change? Glob. Environ. Change 2011, 21, 25–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IFRC, World Disasters Report 2007, Focus on Discrimination; IFRC: London, UK, 2007.
- Goenjian, A.K.; Walling, D.; Steinberg, A.M.; Karayan, I.; Najarian, L.M.; Pynoos, R. A prospective study of posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among treated and untreated adolescents 5 years after a catastrophic disaster. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 2302–2308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolmer, L.; Laor, N.; Dedeoglu, C.; Siev, J.; Yazgan, Y. Teacher-mediated intervention after disaster: A controlled three-year follow-up of children’s functioning. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2005, 46, 1161–1168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gruen, R.L.; Campbell, E.G.; Blumenthal, D. Public roles of US physicians. JAMA 2006, 296, 2467–2475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Voelker, R. Climate change puts children in jeopardy. JAMA 2009, 301, 2197–2199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hajat, S.; Armstrong, B.G.; Nelson, G.; Wilkinson, P. Mortality displacement of heat-related deaths: A comparison of Delhi, São Paulo, and London. Epidemiology 2005, 16, 613–620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hutter, H.-P.; Moshammer, H.; Wallner, P.; Leitner, B.; Kundi, M. Heatwaves in Vienna: Effects on mortality. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 2007, 119, 223–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Green, R.; Basu, R.; Malig, B.; Broadwin, R.; Kim, J.; Ostro, B. The effect of temperature on hospital admissions in nine California Counties. Int. J. Public Health 2010, 55, 113–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McConnell, R.; Berhane, K.; Gilliland, F.; London, S.J.; Islam, T.; Gauderman, W.J.; Avol, E.; Margolis, H.G.; Peters, J.M. Asthma in exercising children exposed to ozone: A cohort study. Lancet 2002, 359, 386–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bond, G. Tackling Student Absenteeism: Research Findings and Recommendations for School and Local Communities; Hume Whittlesea: Broadmeadows, Australia, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Average Rates of Student Attendance at Primary and Secondary School (Percentage); Department of Education and Early Childhood Development: Melbourne, Australia, 2007.
- UNICEF, Statistics. South Africa. Education; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2010.
- Checkley, W.; Epstein, L.D.; Gilman, R.H.; Figueroa, D.; Cama, R.I.; Patz, J.A.; Black, R.E. Effects of El Niño and ambient temperature on hospital admissions for diarrhoeal diseases in Peruvian children. Lancet 2000, 355, 442–450. [Google Scholar]
- Grech, V.; Balzan, M.; Asciak, R.; Buhagiar, A. Seasonal variations in hospital admissions for asthma in Malta. J. Asthma 2002, 39, 263–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weinbruch, S.; Dirsch, T.; Ebert, M.; Hofmann, H.; Kandler, K. Dust exposure in indoor climbing halls. J. Environ. Monit. 2008, 10, 648–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Casa, D.; Armstrong, L.; Kenny, G.; O’Connor, F.; Huggins, R. Exertional heat stroke: New concepts regarding cause and care. Curr. Med. Sports Rep. 2012, 11, 115–123. [Google Scholar]
- Ostro, B.; Rauch, S.; Green, R.; Malig, B.; Basu, R. The effects of temperature and use of air conditioning on hospitalizations. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2010, 172, 1053–1061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandyopadhyay, S.; Kanji, S.; Wang, L. The impact of rainfall and temperature variation on diarrheal prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Appl. Geogr. 2012, 33, 63–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gouveia, N.; Hajat, S.; Armstrong, B. Socioeconomic differentials in the temperature—Mortality relationship in São Paulo, Brazil. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2003, 32, 390–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lam, L.T. The association between climatic factors and childhood illnesses presented to hospital emergency among young children. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2007, 17, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, C.; Barnett, A.G.; Wang, X.; Vaneckova, P.; FitzGerald, G.; Tong, S. Projecting future heat-related mortality under climate change scenarios: A systematic review. Environ. Health Perspect. 2011, 119, 1681–1690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Lopez, A.; Mathers, C.; Ezzati, M.; Jamison, D.; Murray, C. Global Burden of Disease and Risk Factors; Oxford Unversity Press: Oxford, UK, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- WHO, Climate Change and Human Health—Risks and Responses. Summary; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2003.
- Khady, D. Governance and natural disasters: Addressing flooding in Saint louis, Senegal. Environ. Urban. 2007, 19, 552–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, Z.; Ferm, M.; Liang, Y.; Norbäck, D. Asthmatic symptoms among pupils in relation to winter indoor and outdoor air pollution in schools in Taiyuan, China. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 116, 90–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, X.-N.; Yang, G.-J.; Yang, K.; Wang, X.-H.; Hong, Q.-B.; Sun, L.-P.; Malone, J.B.; Kristensen, T.K.; Bergquist, N.R.; Utzinger, J. Potential impact of climate change on schistosomiasis transmission in China. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 78, 188–194. [Google Scholar]
- Gosling, S.; McGregor, G.; Lowe, J. Climate change and heat-related mortality in six cities part 2: Climate model evaluation and projected impacts from changes in the mean and variability of temperature with climate change. Int. J. Biometeorol. 2009, 53, 31–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jackson, J.; Yost, M.; Karr, C.; Fitzpatrick, C.; Lamb, B.; Chung, S.; Chen, J.; Avise, J.; Rosenblatt, R.; Fenske, R. Public health impacts of climate change in Washington State: Projected mortality risks due to heat events and air pollution. Climatic Change 2010, 102, 159–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNICEF, The State of the World’s Children. United Nations Children’s Fund: New York, NY, USA, 2006.
© 2012 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Xu, Z.; Sheffield, P.E.; Hu, W.; Su, H.; Yu, W.; Qi, X.; Tong, S. Climate Change and Children’s Health—A Call for Research on What Works to Protect Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 3298-3316. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9093298
Xu Z, Sheffield PE, Hu W, Su H, Yu W, Qi X, Tong S. Climate Change and Children’s Health—A Call for Research on What Works to Protect Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2012; 9(9):3298-3316. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9093298
Chicago/Turabian StyleXu, Zhiwei, Perry E. Sheffield, Wenbiao Hu, Hong Su, Weiwei Yu, Xin Qi, and Shilu Tong. 2012. "Climate Change and Children’s Health—A Call for Research on What Works to Protect Children" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9, no. 9: 3298-3316. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9093298