Exploring the Impact of Occupational Hazards on the Mental Health of Farmworkers: A Qualitative Study in Maruleng, Limpopo Province

Highlights

Public health relevance—How does this work relate to a public health issue?

• The study highlights that unsafe working conditions in farming environments constitute a significant public health concern, as occupational settings are key social determinants of health aligning with sustainable development goal 3 and 8. When large groups of workers are exposed to similar workplace hazards, it becomes a community-wide issue, increasing the burden on the health systems and affecting productivity, family well-being, and overall community health.
• The study also reveals limited support and poor access to mental health services for farmworkers, reflecting broader public health challenges related to health inequities in rural and agricultural communities.

Public health significance—Why is this work of significance to public health?

• The study is significant in that it identifies the effects of occupational hazards on workers’ mental health, thereby providing a basis for the elimination or mitigation of such hazards and informing the implementation of appropriate precautionary measures to address them.
• Identifying the relationship between occupational hazards and mental health outcomes is critical for informing prevention and early intervention strategies, which would strengthen public health systems and advance health equity.

Public health implications—What are the key implications or messages for practitioners, policy makers and/or researchers in public health?

• The findings may provide evidence-informed policy-making for strengthening occupational health policies in South Africa, enforcing safety regulations related to hazard exposures, and implementing employee assistance programmes in the agricultural sector, because public health relies on evidence-informed interventions.
• The study also highlights public health’s holistic approach to practitioners, which recognises that physical, psychological, and social factors are interconnected. The study adds new knowledge regarding workplace hazards and their influence on mental health outcomes in the agricultural industry.

Abstract

Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing how individuals’ function and cope with life events. In the agricultural industry, the use of machinery and chemicals to increase productivity exposes farmworkers to a range of occupational hazards. These hazards often create unsafe working conditions that can contribute to mental health problems, including anxiety and depression. This study explored the impact of the occupational hazards on the mental health of the farmworkers at Maruleng, Limpopo Province. A qualitative research approach and phenomenological research design were adopted. In-depth individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 farmworkers. The interviews were guided by a central question. Data were audio-recorded, transcribed and analysed using Tesch’s eight-step of open-coding method. The findings indicate that farmworkers in Maruleng are exposed to a range of occupational hazards that adversely affect their mental health. Participants reported experiencing significant psychological strain associated with unsafe working conditions on the farms. Employers were found to inadequately protect workers, as evidenced by poor maintenance of farm machinery, insufficient pesticides handling training, and the lack of appropriate and adequate personal protective equipment (PPE). The study concludes that limited institutional support and inadequate access to mental health services exacerbate risks to the health and safety of farmworkers in Maruleng. To address these challenges, mental health support should be strengthened through the implementation of employee assistance programmes on the farms and other relevant services. In addition, regular monitoring of machinery maintenance, working conditions and safety protocol practices on the farms is essential to ensure compliance with occupational health and safety standards.

1. Introduction

Mental health is a critical component of the overall well-being of individuals, influencing how they think, feel, and cope with daily stressors [1], including the ability to form and maintain relations in social interaction and workplace [2]. In the agricultural industry, farmworkers are routinely exposed to a range of occupational hazards, including physical strain [3], chemical exposure and long working hours, which may lead to musculoskeletal [4] and spinal disorders [5]. While the physical risks associated with agricultural work are known, the mental health consequences of these occupational hazards receive far less attention. Farm work presents an array of stressors emanating from the physical work environment [6]. Continuous exposure to stressful and unsafe working conditions may contribute to increased risk of anxiety, depression [7], emotional exhaustion, and other psychological disorders among farmworkers [8]. Farmworkers experience work-related stress due to work demand exceeding the workers’ coping ability [6], compounded by persistent fears of sustaining injuries or illness on the farms [9].

The mental health challenges faced by farmworkers are increasingly recognised as a critical global concern. Agricultural work is inherently stressful, and the unique conditions within this sector contribute to a range of adverse mental health issues, including anxiety, depression [10], and suicidal ideation [11]. It is worth noting that these outcomes are shaped by the interplay of physical, environmental and psychological stressors, including hazardous labour involving machinery work, pesticides and prolonged periods of social isolation, all of which elevate stress levels [12]. In addition to these external stressors, exposure to agrichemicals has been associated with disruptions in neurochemistry, such as reduced serotonin levels, which may increase vulnerability to depression among exposed workers [13]. The cumulative burden of these stressors is reflected in severe outcomes, with suicide by self-inflicted injury indicated as the leading cause of death within the agricultural sector, often linked to occupational stress [14]. Unsafe working conditions further compound psychological strain, contributing to a spectrum of mental health disorders among farmworkers [15], exacerbated by the lack of psychological support services [16]. Moreover, farmworkers frequently experience generalised anxiety due to exposure to or witnessing occupational accidents at the farms [17]. Chronic stress is further intensified by factors such as lack of control over work conditions, disrupted sleep patterns [18], and financial instability resulting from work-related injuries or illnesses [19]. A study in Ethiopia highlights how work-related illnesses and job insecurity are associated with elevated stress levels and increased anxiety among farmworkers [7]. The association between work-related stress and decreased concentration may heighten the risk of occupational injuries, thereby creating a reinforcing cycle between poor mental health and workplace hazards [20]. The convergence of hazardous working environments, economic insecurity, and insufficient mental health support underscores the significant and multifaceted burden of mental health problems among farmworkers [21].

Despite existing literature on occupational hazards in agriculture and their health consequences, there is limited research examining the mental health effects of these hazards among farmworkers in rural farming communities in South Africa such as Maruleng Municipality. In South Africa, there are stringent labour laws to protect workers concerning occupational health and safety [22]; however, there is a lack of empirical studies exploring how gaps in enforcement influence the mental health outcomes among farmworkers. Considering this, the purpose of the study was to explore the impact of occupational hazards on the mental health of the farmworkers in Maruleng, Limpopo Province. To achieve this, the study adopted a qualitative approach to investigate the problem in depth. Understanding this relationship is essential for informing policies and interventions that promote safer working conditions and improve mental health outcomes within the agricultural sector.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

The study used a qualitative, phenomenological research design to obtain verbal data using face-to-face interviews. The qualitative research method allowed the researchers to conduct in-depth investigation of the problem under study.

2.2. Setting and Participants

The study was conducted on one of the farms and within Maruleng community in the residential areas of the farmworkers who agreed to take part when approached in the community. Maruleng Municipality is located approximately 62 km from Tzaneen Town in the Mopani District of Limpopo Province, South Africa. The farms in this area primarily produce fruits such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, and mangoes, as well as vegetables including green peppers, beans, and tomatoes. The community is predominantly composed of Sepedi-speaking people. The study population comprised farmworkers employed on farms within Maruleng Municipality.

Purposive sampling was used to select study participants with relevant knowledge and experience in farm work, who were currently employed in the farms within Maruleng. The study included farmworkers who were employed for a minimum of six months and were aged 18 years and above. Farm owners and seasonal workers employed for less than six months were excluded. Five farmworkers were randomly selected from a list totalling 22 farmworkers employed at the visited farm, provided by the farm management, and 10 participants from different farms were recruited at their bus stations since permission was not granted in their farms. The researcher took contact details of those who agreed to take part in the study and visited their residential area within the community at the agreed time for the interviews. Therefore, the sample size was not predetermined; data were collected until no new information, themes or insights emerged from additional data during the interviews.

2.3. Data Collection

The study data were collected after obtaining ethical clearance. All participants gave verbal informed consent prior to their participation in the study. Data were collected through in-depth semi-structured face-to-face individual interviews with open ended questions; a voice recording device was used to record the interviews. A pilot study was conducted with two farmworkers to test the feasibility of the interview guide, which did not form part of the actual study, and the guide was not modified thereafter.

All the interviews were in the local language, which is Sepedi. The interviews were conducted by the primary investigator who is fluent in Sepedi; this allowed the establishment of rapport and created a conducive environment for the participants. The interviews were guided by a central question which was, “What are your experiences regarding occupational hazards and how such hazards affect your mental health whilst working on the farm?”, followed by subsequent probing questions provoking detailed information. This question aimed to explore the effects of occupational hazards on the mental health amongst farmworkers by examining workplace environmental factors.

Active listening techniques were paramount when collecting data, such as nodding, paraphrasing participants’ responses and maintaining appropriate eye contact. These were to show active listening and to encourage participants to express themselves in detail.

2.4. Data Analysis

The data were manually analysed, using Tesch’s eight-step open coding data analysis method, as outlined by Creswell [23]. Step 1 involved listening to the voice recordings, translating them from Sepedi to English, and transcribing and reading the transcripts thoroughly to familiarise ourselves with their content. In Step 2, the researcher noted down meanings and his thoughts and impressions on paragraphs and pages of the transcript; thereafter, the transcripts were submitted to a certified independent co-coder with data analysis expertise to review the data transcripts and confirm the themes and sub-themes generated. After the independent co-coder completed the coding process, the researchers met with the independent co-coder to compare and discuss the themes, and, therefore, reach an agreement on the themes that would be used. Step 3 involved analysing the transcripts and generating a list of topics that emerged from the data. In Step 4, the topics were grouped based on similarities, while those considered irrelevant or additional were set aside, after which coding commenced. In Step 5, the codes were organised into potential themes, using the generated codes to formulate main themes. Some codes were combined based on their meanings, while others were refined into sub-themes. Step 6 involved listing the categories in alphabetical order to assist with identifying similarities. In Step 7, each theme was aligned with the corresponding data to ensure that it accurately reflected participants’ responses, after which the themes were finalised. In Step 8, once the researchers were satisfied with the identified themes, they proceeded to write up the results.

Measures of trustworthiness were ensured through the application of four key criteria, credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability, thereby enhancing the accuracy and rigour of the study. Credibility was maintained through the researchers’ neutrality during interviews with farmworkers, minimising bias in data collection. Transferability was achieved by providing a detailed and transparent description of the research methodology, allowing readers to assess the applicability of the findings to similar contexts. Dependability was ensured through a clear and systematic account of the data collection process, including the number of interviews conducted and the continuation of data collection until data saturation was achieved. Confirmability was supported by using qualitative methods that prioritised participants’ perspectives; thus, interviews enabled participants to freely express their views and experiences, guided by a central research question rather than researchers’ assumptions. Additionally, an independent co-coder was engaged to verify that the themes identified during data analysis were accurate and firmly grounded in the data.

2.5. Ethical Considerations

The researchers obtained ethical approval to conduct the study from the Turfloop Research Ethics Committee (TREC), Itemeleng Bamakhutswe farm and Lewele traditional council. All participants volunteered to participate in the study. None were forced or promised remuneration as a motive for them to participate. They were all informed about the study and were encouraged to withdraw at any time if they no longer want to participate. An informed consent form was read to participants prior to participation, and they consented verbally.

3. Results

The total number of participants who formed part of the study were 15. Out of 15 participants, nine were males and six were females. These participants worked in six different categories.

Table 1. Characteristics of participants.

No.	Work Category	Number of Participants
1	Tractor Drivers	3
2	Pesticides Workers	3
3	Harvesting and Packing Workers	5
4	Chainsaw Operator	1
5	Tools and Maintenance Workers	2
6	Forklift Driver	1

summarises the categories:

The results presented below are derived from themes identified during the data analysis process (

Table 2. Summary of themes.

Emerging Themes
1. Psychological Strain Due to Unsafe Working Conditions
2. Financial Stress and Job Insecurity
3. Emotional Distress from Poor Treatment, Discrimination, and Lack of Respect

). They offer a comprehensive account of the effects of occupational hazards on the mental health of farmworkers in Maruleng and are outlined below.

3.1. Theme 1: Psychological Strain Due to Unsafe Working Conditions

Farmworkers were experiencing ongoing distress about their health and safety, especially when they are required to work without adequate and appropriate PPE. Some workers reported that after handling pesticides, they continued to smell the chemicals on their hands and clothes while eating, raising serious concerns about potential long-term health effects. Others mentioned that operating tractors with faulty brakes causes constant stress, as they fear crashing into trees or other workers. This persistent distress not only compromises their sense of safety but also takes a significant toll on their mental well-being. The workers also indicated that witnessing a colleague suffering an injury is traumatic and leaves a lasting emotional burden, making it difficult to move past the experience. Workers recounted witnessing a colleague’s hand being cut by a tractor chain, and in another tragic incident a worker was killed when a tractor rolled over after the worker fell from a moving trailer. The workers explained the situation by saying:

“What is stressing me is the risks that I work in, like the dust angers me. Sometimes I ask them to wet the ground to minimise dust generated by the forklift but at times they do not do it, and it stresses me…yeah”.

(Participant D)

“yeah, we were harvesting oranges, and it was during knockoff time, so they climbed on the trailers then when it was on the road it hit a pothole on the gravel road, so the worker fell under the trailer and it rolled over the worker then dragged the worker under it yeah…and the worker died yeah eh…when I think about it I still get scared for someday”.

(Participant G)

3.2. Theme 2: Financial Stress and Job Insecurity

This study found that farmworkers were faced with significant financial stress and job insecurity, driven by constant fears of losing their jobs due to injury or dismissal. Farmworkers were stressed about falling ill because of pesticides exposure or being hurt by farm machines, then being unable to work and losing their income. The study also revealed that workers were afraid to raise their concerns regarding health and safety as they get told that they do not want to work and fear being dismissed. Additionally, some workers expressed that their wages were too low considering the health risks and physical demands of farm work. The workers explained by saying:

“Like the salary of those working with chemicals, packers or general workers is the same while the one of chemicals has more health risks than others. So, this causes me stress because I work with chemicals and knowing that they can affect my health very badly, but I am not paid the salary that I deserve.”

(Participant K)

“When you request PPE, they say you do not want to work and we fear that they might fire us. So, because we know our poverty, we just work…is not like they do not know that poisons are dangerous, they do, honestly, we are risking with our lives because we want to earn money.”

(Participant H)

“I can say the salary is too short because I have to buy food here and also at home because I spend most of the time here, so I also have to send money home. So sometimes I fight with my wife on issues of finance.”

(Participant J)

3.3. Theme 3: Emotional Distress from Poor Treatment, Discrimination, and Lack of Respect

The study revealed that farmworkers’ mental health is adversely affected by interpersonal relations, work practices, and workplace power dynamics. Participants described experiences of emotional abuse, discrimination, and interpersonal conflict that contributed to psychological distress, anxiety, and a diminished sense of dignity at work. It was reported that farmworkers are subjected to verbal abuse, shouting, and public humiliation by supervisors and managers, particularly when raising concerns related to health and safety. Farmworkers indicated that they are being reprimanded in front of other colleagues. Others expressed frustration over preferential treatment of certain groups of workers. The workers said:

“They abuse us emotionally by insulting us and shouting when we raise our concerns. They never attend to our complaints and this stresses us.”

(Participant L)

“A supervisor or a manager must not shout or discipline another worker in front of other colleagues, because such can cause stress for the worker.”

(Participant G)

“Management overlook us and prefer foreign nationals…this makes us always fight because they put us under pressure.”

(Participant I)

“This farm has a lot of apartheid, some of the things you are not told, you do not have a say and you just have to do them even if you can see that it is not safe.”

(Participant J)

4. Discussion

The study found that farmworkers in Maruleng are exposed to a range of occupational hazards that adversely affect their mental health. These hazards contribute to significant psychological strain, largely stemming from unsafe working conditions on the farms. Despite experiencing such strain, farmworkers reported having no access to psychological support services to assist them in coping. The study provides a comprehensive understanding of farmworkers’ mental well-being by linking physical hazards, psychosocial stressors, workplace power dynamics, and the absence of mental health support into a comprehensive understanding of farmworkers’ mental well-being in Maruleng.

The findings of the current study are consistent with and reinforce the existing literature on the relationship between occupational hazards and mental health outcomes among farmworkers. In Maruleng, farmworkers reported persistent and distressing challenges linked to unsafe working conditions and occupational risks including lack of machinery maintenance and pesticides exposure without adequate PPE, which significantly influenced their mental well-being outcomes. These findings align with those of Murray, Beattie, McLeod, Pedler, Brumby and Gabbe [24] who highlight that farm-related injuries are not only physically harmful but also psychologically traumatic for both injured workers and their co-workers, often delaying recovery and the return to work. Similarly, the current study found that workers were frequently expected to resume duties immediately after witnessing traumatic incidents, without any form of debriefing or psychological support, thereby exacerbating their emotional distress. Furthermore, the anxiety experienced by farmworkers in Maruleng regarding financial insecurity and fear of job loss are similar to findings by Gelaye et al. [7] in Ethiopia, where job uncertainty and exposure to work-related illnesses were associated with increased levels of anxiety and depression. In both contexts, the precarious nature of farm work intensifies psychological vulnerability, particularly when workers fear losing their income due to injury or illness. The absence of psychosocial support identified in Maruleng supports the conclusions of Morris and Arbuckle [25], who found that a lack of mental health resources contributes to feelings of helplessness, grief, and emotional exhaustion among farmworkers. The convergence of these findings underscores a broader pattern in which inadequate workplace support systems and unsafe working environments compound psychological strain. The current study contributes to the growing body of evidence by demonstrating how physical hazards, economic insecurity, and insufficient organisational support interact to produce significant mental health challenges. These findings suggest that farm management practices in Maruleng, similar to those reported in other contexts, fail to adequately protect and promote the psychological well-being of workers, ultimately resulting in profound emotional distress.

The findings of the current study are strongly supported by the existing literature on psychosocial hazards in the workplace. Farmworkers in Maruleng reported significant psychological distress arising from poor treatment, discrimination, and strained workplace relationships. Experiences of emotional abuse including shouting, insults, and public humiliation by supervisors when raising safety concerns created a hostile work environment and reinforced feelings of powerlessness. These findings are consistent with prior studies [11,26,27] which demonstrate that exposure to verbal abuse in the workplace is closely associated with increased stress, anxiety, and reduced job satisfaction. Moreover, the management practices described by participants, characterised by intimidation, dismissiveness, and lack of responsiveness to safety concerns, further discouraged open communication about occupational risks. This aligns with the broader research indicating that authoritarian and unsupportive leadership styles contribute to unsafe working environments by silencing workers and limiting their ability to advocate for improved health and safety conditions. The current study extends existing knowledge by illustrating how such dynamics operate within farm settings in Maruleng, ultimately exacerbating both physical and psychological risks. In addition, perceptions of discrimination, favouritism, and unequal treatment emerged as key stressors among participants. These findings are in line with the study by Amoadu, Ansah and Sarfo [28] which found that poor treatment, discrimination, and unsafe working conditions expose workers to significant psychosocial hazards. In the current and existing studies, perceived favouritism and inequity contributed to interpersonal conflict, feelings of injustice, exclusion, and chronic stress. The study highlights that beyond physical hazards, relational and structural inequalities play a critical role in shaping farmworkers’ mental health outcomes. Addressing these challenges in South Africa requires not only improving safety conditions but also fostering respectful, inclusive, and psychologically supportive work environments that uphold the dignity and well-being of farmworkers.

Limitations and Strength of the Study

The study was unable to reach farmworkers from other farms who may be facing different challenges. Given the study methodology, the findings cannot be generalised to all the farms in Maruleng Municipality. The study is also context-bound and may not be generalised to other municipalities in South Africa. The study lacked standardised mental health tools to measure the psychological conditions of farmworkers. However, the study was able to demonstrate how unsafe working conditions affect the mental well-being of the farmworkers. The study provides a comprehensive analysis of the interplay between occupational hazards and mental health among farmworkers, which may be valuable insights for the development of targeted interventions.

5. Conclusions

The study demonstrated that farmworkers in Maruleng experience significant mental health challenges arising from the combined effects of hazardous working conditions, economic insecurity, and poor workplace relations. The findings indicate that exposure to physical risks such as unsafe machinery and pesticide use without adequate PPE is linked with psychological distress, including anxiety, fear, and emotional exhaustion, further deepened by job insecurity and the absence of organisational and psychosocial support, leaving workers vulnerable and unable to adequately cope with mental health challenges. The study highlights the urgent need for a holistic approach to occupational health in the agricultural sector. Interventions should not only focus on improving physical risks, such as machinery safety or pesticide protection but also prioritise mental health support, fair labour practices, and inclusive management strategies that involve workers. Addressing these interconnected challenges is essential to create a safer working environment and implement effective preventative strategies to minimise workplace health challenges.

Recommendations

The following are recommendations based on the study findings:

• There should be robust and regular monitoring of machinery maintenance, working conditions and safety protocol practices on the farms to ensure compliance with occupational health and safety standards.
• Efforts should be made to recognise and address psychological issues amongst farmworkers, through the implementation of support initiatives, such as trauma debriefing sessions following workplace incidents and Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs), addressing stress and other job-related mental health challenges.
• Farm management, including supervisors, should be trained in ethical leadership, communication and conflict resolution; these may encourage respectful engagement with workers and reduce psychological distress.