Academic Self-Pressure and Physiological Responses in Adolescents: A Pilot Experimental Study on the Moderating Role of an Escape Room-Based Physical Activity Intervention on Cognitive and Academic Outcomes
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Participants
2.3. Procedures
2.4. Intervention Program
- Phase 1: Foundation (Weeks 1–4)
- Focus: Basic linguistic and physical skills
- Physical Activity: Light aerobic exercises (jumping jacks, dynamic stretching, balance exercises).
- Escape Room Challenges:
- ○
- Grammar and Vocabulary Games:
- ■
- Word association relays: Students jog in place while linking words in semantic categories.
- ■
- Sentence-building obstacle course: Teams navigate a course collecting words to form grammatically correct sentences.
- ○
- Basic Riddles: Deciphering simple language-based clues to unlock next stages.
- ○
- Collaboration Tasks: Team-based warm-ups to foster group dynamics.
- Phase 2: Textual Analysis in Motion (Weeks 5–8)
- Focus: Reading comprehension and information extraction
- Physical Activity: Moderate-intensity exercises (obstacle courses, relay races, agility drills).
- Escape Room Challenges:
- ○
- Text-Based Missions:
- ■
- Extracting key information from short texts while completing a movement task (e.g., scanning a passage while balancing on a beam).
- ■
- “Find the Clue” Race: Students sprint to retrieve hidden excerpts, then arrange them in logical sequence.
- ○
- Team Strategy Tasks: Groups compete to summarize information efficiently under time pressure.
- ○
- Puzzle Locks: Matching key words or main ideas to corresponding padlocks to progress in the escape room.
- Phase 3: Literary Comprehension and Coordination (Weeks 9–12)
- Focus: Advanced literary interpretation and movement-based cognition
- Physical Activity: Increased complexity in coordination drills, partner exercises, and endurance-based challenges.
- Escape Room Challenges:
- ○
- Summarizing While Moving:
- ■
- Teams perform a coordination exercise (e.g., dribbling or balancing) while summarizing literary passages.
- ○
- Symbolic Puzzle Challenge:
- ■
- Identifying metaphors, symbols, and themes in texts and matching them to corresponding objects within the escape room.
- ○
- Memory and Recall Relays:
- ■
- Students retrieve parts of a poem or prose and reconstruct it collaboratively while performing movement-based tasks.
- Phase 4: High-Intensity Training and Thematic Analysis (Weeks 13–16)
- Focus: Advanced critical thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork
- Physical Activity: High-intensity interval training (HIIT), reaction drills, and cooperative strength challenges.
- Escape Room Challenges:
- ○
- Timed Literary Debates and Physical Strategy Games:
- ■
- Teams engage in analytical discussions about literary themes while solving movement-based challenges.
- ○
- Problem-Solving Under Pressure:
- ■
- Combining physical endurance with linguistic challenges such as unlocking a final puzzle using analyzed literary elements.
- ○
- Grand Escape Challenge:
- ■
- A final multi-layered challenge integrating all skills developed, requiring teamwork, physical agility, and deep textual analysis.
2.5. Measures
2.5.1. Heart Rate (HR) and Heart Rate Variability (HRV)
2.5.2. Academic Self-Pressure (AESI–Expectations of Self Subscale)
- “I feel stressed when I do not meet my own academic expectations.”
- “I push myself very hard to succeed academically.”
2.5.3. Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10)
- “In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and stressed?”
- “In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way?” (reverse-scored).
2.5.4. Well-Being Questionnaire
- “I feel satisfied with my academic experience.”
- “I feel emotionally balanced in my daily school life.”
2.5.5. Working Memory and Executive Function (Digit Span Test and Stroop Task)
2.5.6. Reading Comprehension and Analytical Skills
- Extract key information from texts;
- Summarize content concisely;
- Analyze literary themes within structured assessments.
2.5.7. Academic Performance (Grades in Italian Language and Literature)
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Construct Validity of the Measurement Scales
3.2. Paired t-Test/Wilcoxon Test Results (Pre–Post for Each Group)
3.2.1. Heart Rate (HR)
3.2.2. Heart Rate Variability (HRV)
3.2.3. Academic Stress (AESI)
3.2.4. Perceived Stress (PSS)
3.2.5. Well-Being Score
3.2.6. Digit Span Test
3.2.7. Stroop Task
3.2.8. Academic Performance (Grades in Italian)
3.3. ANOVA Analysis for Repeated Measurements (×Time Group)
3.4. Independent t-Test
3.5. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis
- Self-pressure (r = 0.32, p = 0.024),
- Perceived well-being (r = 0.33, p = 0.023),
- Working memory (Digit Span test) (r = 0.31, p = 0.029),
- Academic performance (Italian grades) (r = 0.30, p = 0.033).
3.6. Linear Regression
- Prediction of Self-Pressure
- F(1, 48) = 12.87, p = 0.001 → The model is significant.
- R2 = 0.215 → 21.5% of the variance in self-pressure is explained by HRV.
- HRV coefficient = 0.1025, p = 0.001 → Increased HRV is a significant predictor of higher perceived self-pressure.
- Prediction of Working Memory (Digit Span Test)
- F(1, 48) = 20.12, p < 0.001 → The model is significant.
- R2 = 0.305 → 30.5% of the variance in working memory is explained by HRV.
- HRV coefficient = 0.1487, p < 0.001 → Increased HRV is a significant predictor of better working memory performance.
- Prediction of Academic Performance (Italian Grades)
- F(1, 48) = 45.19, p < 0.001 → The model is highly significant.
- R2 = 0.485 → 48.5% of the variance in academic grades is explained by HRV.
- HRV coefficient = 0.0564, p < 0.001 → Increased HRV is a significant predictor of higher academic grades.
- Prediction of Cognitive Flexibility (Stroop Task)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Stoeber, J.; Childs, J.H.; Hayward, J.A.; Feast, A.R. Passion and motivation for studying: Predicting academic engagement and burnout in university students. Educ. Psychol. 2011, 31, 513–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, B.; Chang, C.; Lin, C.H.; Zhang, Y. Self-efficacy, academic motivation, and self-regulation: How do they predict academic achievement for medical students? Med. Sci. Educ. 2021, 31, 125–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scamardella, F.; Casillo, V.; Cusano, P. Engagement and tennis: The applicability of occupational psychology to the world of sport. J. Hum. Sport Exerc. 2020, 15, 173–176. [Google Scholar]
- Scamardella, F.; Russo, N.; Napolitano, F.; Di Palma, D. The phenomenon of load management. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 2020, 20, 2306–2309. [Google Scholar]
- Mueller, B.; Figueroa, A.; Robinson-Papp, J. Structural and functional connections between the autonomic nervous system, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and the immune system: A context and time dependent stress response network. Neurol. Sci. 2022, 43, 951–960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oubaid, V. Psychological stress and the autonomic nervous system. In Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2023; pp. 301–304. [Google Scholar]
- Lamotte, G.; Shouman, K.; Benarroch, E.E. Stress and central autonomic network. Auton. Neurosci. 2021, 235, 102870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xiao, Y.Y. Research on academic stress model and accurate evaluation of psychological state of middle school students. In Computational Social Science; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2022; pp. 94–97. [Google Scholar]
- Laborde, S.; Mosley, E.; Thayer, J.F. Heart rate variability and cardiac vagal tone in psychophysiological research–recommendations for experiment planning, data analysis, and data reporting. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kim, H.J.; Park, Y.; Lee, J. The Validity of Heart Rate Variability (HRV) in Educational Research and a Synthesis of Recommendations. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2024, 36, 42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mandolesi, L.; Polverino, A.; Montuori, S.; Foti, F.; Ferraioli, G.; Sorrentino, P.; Sorrentino, G. Effects of Physical Exercise on Cognitive Functioning and Wellbeing: Biological and Psychological Benefits. Front. Psychol. 2018, 9, 509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toader, C.; Serban, M.; Munteanu, O.; Covache-Busuioc, R.A.; Enyedi, M.; Ciurea, A.V.; Tataru, C.P. From synaptic plasticity to Neurodegeneration: BDNF as a transformative target in medicine. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26, 4271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ben Ezzdine, L.; Dhahbi, W.; Dergaa, I.; Ceylan, H.İ.; Guelmami, N.; Ben Saad, H.; Chamari, K.; Stefanica, V.; El Omri, A. Physical activity and neuroplasticity in neurodegenerative disorders: A comprehensive review of exercise interventions, cognitive training, and AI applications. Front. Neurosci. 2025, 19, 1502417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shanks, J.; Ramchandra, R. Exercise and the autonomic nervous system: New insights and future directions mini-review. Auton. Neurosci. 2025, 258, 103254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mourot, L.; Bouhaddi, M.; Tordi, N.; Rouillon, J.D.; Regnard, J. Short- and long-term effects of a single bout of exercise on heart rate variability: Comparison between constant and interval training exercises. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004, 92, 508–517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hansen, A.L.; Johnsen, B.H.; Sollers, J.J.; Stenvik, K.; Thayer, J.F. Heart rate variability and its relation to prefrontal cognitive function: The effects of training and detraining. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004, 93, 263–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hillman, C.H.; Erickson, K.I.; Kramer, A.F. Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9, 58–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sugiatno, S.; Amalia, A.; Wati, I.D.P.; Samodra, Y.T.J.; Gandasari, M.F.; Sumarsono, A.; Suryadi, D.; Indra, B.W.; Sahib, S.M.; Making, M.M. The relationship between early numeracy and physical activity in children: A literature review. Retos 2025, 62, 1005–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diamond, A. Executive functions and the development of cognitive abilities. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2013, 22, 52–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, Y.K.; Labban, J.D.; Gapin, J.I.; Etnier, J.L. The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis [published correction appears in Brain Res. 2012 Aug 27;1470:159]. Brain Res. 2012, 1453, 87–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, N.A.; Hillman, C.H. The relation of childhood physical activity and aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition: A review. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2014, 26, 138–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McMichan, L.; Gibson, A.M.; Rowe, D.A. Classroom-based physical activity and sedentary behavior interventions in adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Phys. Act. Health 2018, 15, 383–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ruhland, S.; Lange, K.W. Effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on attention and on-task behavior in schoolchildren: A systematic review. Sports Med. Health Sci. 2021, 3, 125–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xu, Y.; Lin, N.; Wu, C.; Wen, X.; Zhong, F.; Yu, K.; Shu, L.; Huang, C. The Effect of Classroom-Based Physical Activity Elements on Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis. J. Teach. Phys. Educ. 2023, 43, 79–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuo, H.C.; Pan, A.J.; Lin, C.S.; Chang, C.Y. Let’s escape! The impact of a digital-physical combined escape room on students’ creative thinking, learning motivation, and science academic achievement. Educ. Sci. 2022, 12, 615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Makri, A.; Vlachopoulos, D.; Martina, R.A. Digital escape rooms as innovative pedagogical tools in education: A systematic literature review. Sustainability 2021, 13, 4587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Setti, W.; Tarello, R.; Volta, E.; Ferlino, L.; Gori, M.; Volpe, G. DUDA: A digital didactic learning unit based on educational escape rooms and multisensory learning activities for primary school children during COVID-19 lockdown. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 2025, 73, 331–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Babazadeh, M.; Frigerio, M.F. Enhancing problem-solving skills with educational escape rooms: A middle school case study. In Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Games Based Learning, Virtual, 23–24 September 2021; pp. 53–62. [Google Scholar]
- Deng, Y.; Cherian, J.; Khan, N.U.N.; Kumari, K.; Sial, M.S.; Comite, U.; Gavurova, B.; Popp, J. Family and academic stress and their impact on students’ depression level and academic performance. Front. Psychiatry 2022, 13, 869337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wunsch, K.; Fiedler, J.; Bachert, P.; Woll, A. The tridirectional relationship among physical activity, stress, and academic performance in university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public health 2021, 18, 739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, X. Academic stress and academic burnout in adolescents: A moderated mediating model. Front. Psychol. 2023, 14, 1133706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bilbao-Quintana, N.; López-De-la-Serna, A.; Romero-Andonegui, A.; Tejada-Garitano, E. Developing visible thinking and motivation through the curricular design of an escape room in higher education. Rev. Electrónica Educ. 2021, 25, 493–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LaBelle, B. Positive outcomes of a social-emotional learning program to promote student resiliency and address mental health. Contemp. Sch. Psychol. 2023, 27, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wargo, J.; Garcia, A. (Re)reading the room: The literacies of escape rooms. J. Curric. Pedagog. 2023, 20, 14–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kiran Kumar, B.; Rajasekaran, R.; Kumaran, K. Heart rate variability as a biomarker for stress and autonomic nervous system function: A review. Physiol. Rep. 2021, 9, e14772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yoo, H.; Kim, C.; Lee, S. The impact of heart rate variability on academic performance and stress regulation. Psychophysiology 2021, 58, e13787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tripska, J.; Draessler, H.; Pokladnikova, J. Relationship between heart rate variability and stress resilience. J. Physiol. Behav. 2022, 238, 113412. [Google Scholar]
- Latino, F.; Tafuri, F. Wearable sensors and the evaluation of physiological performance in elite field hockey players. Sports 2024, 12, 124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaffarczyk, S.S.; Schneider, C.M.; Müller, H. Reliability of Polar H10 in field conditions for heart rate variability analysis. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2022, 22, 501–509. [Google Scholar]
- Gilgen-Ammann, R.; Kachele, M.; Kuster, F.; van Dijk, M. Validity and accuracy of the Polar H10 heart rate monitor for measuring heart rate variability during exercise. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2019, 18, 292–299. [Google Scholar]
- Ang, R.P.; Huan, V.S. Academic Expectations Stress Inventory: Development, Factor Analysis, Reliability, and Validity. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 2006, 66, 522–539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Messineo, L.; Tosto, C. Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the 10-item perceived stress scale in a sample of teachers. Front. Psychol. 2024, 14, 1330789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruini, C.; Ottolini, F.; Talori, P. A short scale for assessing well-being: Development and validation. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 2003, 19, 2–10. [Google Scholar]
- Cormier, D.C.; Kennedy, K.E.; Aquilina, A.M. Test Review: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition: Canadian 322 (WISC-VCDN) by D. Wechsler. Can. J. Sch. Psychol. 2016, 31, 322–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MacLeod, C.M. The Stroop task: The “gold standard” of cognitive control measures. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 2021, 150, 1845–1867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abbondanza, N.; Notini, S. Reading comprehension tests. Thinking in English: A grammar and language resource book for psychology students. Manuali Antologie 2002, 1000–1032. [Google Scholar]
- Orlando, E.M.; Buodo, G.; Moretta, T. Psychological distress among college students: The moderating role of heart rate variability in the relationship with maladaptive metacognitions. J. Affect. Disord. Rep. 2025, 19, 100864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, H.G.; Cheon, E.J.; Bai, D.S.; Lee, Y.H.; Koo, B.H. Stress and Heart Rate Variability: A Meta-Analysis and Review of the Literature. Psychiatry Investig. 2018, 15, 235–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kasap, K.A.; Kurt, B. Exploring the Correlation of Physiological Stress Signals with Student Exam Performance: A Preliminary Study. Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback 2025, 50, 149–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grabo, L.M.; Schulz, A.; Bellingrath, S. Vagally-mediated heart rate variability longitudinally predicts test anxiety in university students. Anxiety Stress Coping 2025, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horvath, E.; Kovacs, M.T.; Toth, D.; Toth, L. A study of the relationship between anxiety, cognitive emotion regulation and heart rate variability in athletes. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 2022, 22, 528–534. [Google Scholar]
- Villafaina, S.; Fuentes-García, J.P.; Leon-Llamas, J.L.; Collado-Mateo, D. Physical exercise improves heart-rate variability in obese children and adolescents: A systematic review. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Figueroa, C.; Ayala, A.; Trejo, L.A.; Ramos, B.; Briz, C.L.; Noriega, I.; Chávez, A. Measuring the effectiveness of a multicomponent program to manage academic stress through a resilience to stress index. Sensors 2023, 23, 2650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strehli, I.; Burns, R.D.; Bai, Y.; Ziegenfuss, D.H.; Block, M.E.; Brusseau, T.A. Mind–body physical activity interventions and stress-related physiological markers in educational settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public health 2021, 18, 224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tsatsoulis, A.; Fountoulakis, K.N. The protective role of exercise on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in stress management. Eur. J. Clin. Investig. 2006, 36, 443–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, C.J.; Webb, H.E.; Zourdos, M.C.; Acevedo, E.O. Cardiovascular reactivity, stress, and physical activity. Front. Physiol. 2013, 4, 314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gerber, M.; Lang, C.; Feldmeth, A.K.; Elliot, C.A.; Brand, S.; Holsboer-Trachsler, E.; Pühse, U. Burnout and Mental Health in Swiss Vocational Students: The Moderating Role of Physical Activity. J. Res. Adolesc. 2015, 25, 63–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- George, A.S. Exam season stress and student mental health: An international epidemic. Partn. Univers. Int. Res. J. 2024, 3, 138–149. [Google Scholar]
- Biino, V.; Tinagli, V.; Borioni, F.; Pesce, C. Cognitively enriched physical activity may foster motor competence and executive function as early as preschool age: A pilot trial. Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagog. 2023, 28, 425–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trevillion, C.; Malmberg, L.E.; Esser, P. Working memory, sustained attention, and physical activity: An intraindividual study. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2022, 60, 102161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erickson, K.I.; Voss, M.W.; Prakash, R.S.; Basak, C.; Szabo, A.; Chaddock, L.; Kim, J.S.; Heo, S.; Alves, H.; White, S.M.; et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2011, 108, 3017–3022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, X.; Zhao, X. Role of executive function in mathematical ability of children in different grades. Acta Psychol. Sin. 2023, 55, 696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Best, J.R. Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Dev. Rev. 2010, 30, 336–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biddle, S.J.; Ciaccioni, S.; Thomas, G.; Vergeer, I. Physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents: An updated review of reviews and an analysis of causality. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2019, 42, 146–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morsanuto, S.; Peluso Cassese, F.; Tafuri, F.; Tafuri, D. Outdoor education, integrated soccer activities, and learning in children with autism spectrum disorder: A project aimed at achieving the sustainable development goals of the 2030 agenda. Sustainability 2023, 15, 13456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farì, G.; Di Paolo, S.; Ungaro, D.; Luperto, G.; Farì, E.; Latino, F. The impact of COVID-19 on sport and daily activities in an Italian cohort of football school children. Int. J. Athl. Ther. Train. 2021, 26, 274–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biddle, S.J.; Asare, M. Physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents: A review of reviews. Br. J. Sports Med. 2011, 45, 886–895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tafuri, F.; Latino, F. School medical service: Strategies to promote psycho-physiological well-being. Pediatr. Rep. 2024, 16, 214–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Solberg, R.B.; Steene-Johannessen, J.; Fagerland, M.W.; Anderssen, S.A.; Berntsen, S.; Resaland, G.K.; van Sluijs, E.M.; Ekelund, U.; Kolle, E. Aerobic fitness mediates the intervention effects of a school-based physical activity intervention on academic performance. The school in Motion study—A cluster randomized controlled trial. Prev. Med. Rep. 2021, 24, 101648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barbosa, A.; Whiting, S.; Simmonds, P.; Scotini Moreno, R.; Mendes, R.; Breda, J. Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, A.; Uijtdewilligen, L.; Twisk, J.W.; van Mechelen, W.; Chinapaw, M.J. Physical activity and performance at school: A systematic review of the literature including a methodological quality assessment. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2012, 166, 49–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arakaki, X.; Arechavala, R.J.; Choy, E.H.; Bautista, J.; Bliss, B.; Molloy, C.; Wu, D.A.; Shimojo, S.; Jiang, Y.; Kleinman, M.T.; et al. The connection between heart rate variability (HRV), neurological health, and cognition: A literature review. Front. Neurosci. 2023, 17, 1055445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, R.L.; Chen, M.A.; Paoletti, J.; Dicker, E.E.; Wu-Chung, E.L.; LeRoy, A.S.; Majd, M.; Suchting, R.; Thayer, J.F.; Fagundes, C.P. Emotion Regulation, Parasympathetic Function, and Psychological Well-Being. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 879166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nicolini, P.; Malfatto, G.; Lucchi, T. Heart Rate Variability and Cognition: A Narrative Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies. J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13, 280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Erickson, K.I.; Hillman, C.; Stillman, C.M.; Ballard, R.M.; Bloodgood, B.; Conroy, D.E.; Macko, R.; Marquez, D.X.; Petruzzello, S.J.; Powell, K.E. Physical Activity, Cognition, and Brain Outcomes: A Review of the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2019, 51, 1242–1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Smith, R.; Thayer, J.F.; Khalsa, S.S.; Lane, R.D. The hierarchical basis of neurovisceral integration. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2017, 75, 274–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Järvelin-Pasanen, S.; Sinikallio, S.; Tarvainen, M.P. Heart rate variability and occupational stress—Systematic review. Ind. Health 2018, 56, 500–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milbocker, K.A.; Smith, I.F.; Klintsova, A.Y. Maintaining a dynamic brain: A review of empirical findings describing the roles of exercise, learning, and environmental enrichment in neuroplasticity from 2017–2023. Brain Plast. 2024, 9, 75–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shah, S.; Kuber, J.; Lewis, G.F. Executive Functions in relation to Autonomic Control: An Overview of Neuropsychological Evaluation Methods. bioRxiv 2025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Swann, C.; Rosenbaum, S.; Lawrence, A.; Vella, S.A.; McEwan, D.; Ekkekakis, P. Updating goal-setting theory in physical activity promotion: A critical conceptual review. Health Psychol. Rev. 2021, 15, 34–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ryan, R.M.; Deci, E.L. Self-determination theory. In Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2024; pp. 6229–6235. [Google Scholar]
- Elias, M.F.; Torres, R.V. The renaissance of heart rate variability as a predictor of cognitive functioning. Am. J. Hypertens. 2018, 31, 21–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellis, B.J.; Del Giudice, M. Beyond allostatic load: Rethinking the role of stress in regulating human development. Dev. Psychopathol. 2014, 26, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zou, L.; Zhang, Z.; Mavilidi, M.; Chen, Y.; Herold, F.; Ouwehand, K.; Paas, F. The synergy of embodied cognition and cognitive load theory for optimized learning. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2025, 9, 877–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Characteristic | Experimental Group (n = 25) | Control Group (n = 25) | Total (N = 50) |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years, mean ± SD) | 15.2 ± 0.6 | 15.1 ± 0.5 | 15.2 ± 0.6 |
Age range (years) | 14–16 | 14–16 | 14–16 |
Sex (Male/Female) | 12/13 | 11/14 | 23/27 |
Inclusion Criteria | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Exclusion Criteria | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| ✗ | ✗ | ✗ |
| ✗ | ✗ | ✗ |
| ✗ | ✗ | ✗ |
| ✗ | ✗ | ✗ |
Scale | N. Items | CFI | TLI | RMSEA | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
AESI | 4 | 0.95 | 0.93 | 0.06 | 0.05 |
PSS-10 | 10 | 0.92 | 0.90 | 0.07 | 0.06 |
Well-being | 6 | 0.96 | 0.94 | 0.05 | 0.04 |
Variable | Experimental Group (Pre-Post) | p-Value | Control Group (Pre-Post) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
HR | t(24) = 5.16 ↓ | <0.001 | t(24) = 0.67 | 0.51 |
HRV | W = 78.0 ↑ | 0.022 | W = 143.0 | 0.615 |
AESI | t(24) = 4.48 ↓ | <0.001 | t(24) = −0.89 | 0.38 |
PSS | W = 9.0 ↓ | <0.001 | W = 106.0 | 0.13 |
Well-being | t(24) = −3.06 ↑ | 0.005 | t(24) = −0.50 | 0.62 |
Digit Span Test | t(24) = −2.76 ↑ | 0.011 | t(24) = 0.20 | 0.84 |
Stroop Task | t(24) = 5.79 ↑ | <0.001 | t(24) = −0.42 | 0.68 |
Grades in Italian | t(24) = −4.62 ↑ | <0.001 | t(24) = 1.25 | 0.22 |
Variable | F(1, 48) | p-Value | η2 Partial | Interpretation |
---|---|---|---|---|
HR | 7.21 | 0.010 | 0.13 | Significant interaction: reduction in HR in the experimental group. |
HRV | 5.02 | 0.030 | 0.10 | Significant interaction: increased HRV in the experimental group. |
AESI | 12.45 | <0.001 | 0.21 | Significant interaction: reduction in self-imposed academic pressure in the experimental group. |
PSS | 9.88 | 0.003 | 0.17 | Significant interaction: reduction in perceived stress in the experimental group. |
Well-being | 3.47 | 0.002 | 0.17 | Significant interaction: improvement of well-being in the experimental group. |
Digit Span | 6.13 | 0.017 | 0.11 | Significant interaction: improvement of working memory in the experimental group. |
Stroop Task | 15.34 | <0.001 | 0.24 | Meaningful interaction: improved cognitive flexibility in the experimental group. |
Italian Grades | 10.21 | 0.002 | 0.18 | Meaningful interaction: improvement of grades in the experimental group. |
Variable | t-Value | p-Value | Interpretation |
---|---|---|---|
HR | −3.20 | 0.002 | Significant reduction in the experimental group |
HRV | 2.10 | 0.040 | Significant increase in HRV in the experimental group |
AESI | −4.70 | <0.001 | Significant reduction in self-imposed academic pressure in the experimental group |
PSS | −3.20 | 0.002 | Significant reduction in perceived stress in the experimental group |
Well-being | 2.35 | 0.023 | Significant increase in well-being in the experimental group |
Digit Span Test | 2.77 | 0.008 | Significant improvement in working memory in the experimental group |
Stroop Task | −3.25 | 0.002 | Significant improvement in the experimental group |
Italian Grades | 2.08 | 0.043 | Significant increase in grades in the experimental group |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Latino, F.; Tafuri, D.; Tafuri, F. Academic Self-Pressure and Physiological Responses in Adolescents: A Pilot Experimental Study on the Moderating Role of an Escape Room-Based Physical Activity Intervention on Cognitive and Academic Outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22060948
Latino F, Tafuri D, Tafuri F. Academic Self-Pressure and Physiological Responses in Adolescents: A Pilot Experimental Study on the Moderating Role of an Escape Room-Based Physical Activity Intervention on Cognitive and Academic Outcomes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(6):948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22060948
Chicago/Turabian StyleLatino, Francesca, Domenico Tafuri, and Francesco Tafuri. 2025. "Academic Self-Pressure and Physiological Responses in Adolescents: A Pilot Experimental Study on the Moderating Role of an Escape Room-Based Physical Activity Intervention on Cognitive and Academic Outcomes" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 6: 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22060948
APA StyleLatino, F., Tafuri, D., & Tafuri, F. (2025). Academic Self-Pressure and Physiological Responses in Adolescents: A Pilot Experimental Study on the Moderating Role of an Escape Room-Based Physical Activity Intervention on Cognitive and Academic Outcomes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(6), 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22060948