Women’s Empowerment and Associated Factors in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: A Secondary Data Analysis of the Performance Monitoring Assessment Survey
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Data Source
2.2. Outcome Variables
2.2.1. Empowerment Items in the Questionnaire
2.2.2. Computing the Average Women’s Empowerment Index (aWEI)
2.2.3. Empowerment Item Reduction Using Principal Component Analysis
2.2.4. Transformation of PC Score to Binary Outcomes
2.3. Independent Variables
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics
3.2. Women Empowerment Domains and aWEI
3.3. Associated Factors to Women’s Empowerment
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
N | % | |
---|---|---|
Age (years) | ||
15–19 | 25 | 1.83 |
20–29 | 454 | 33.26 |
30–39 | 546 | 40.00 |
40–49 | 340 | 24.91 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Education | ||
Never | 4 | 0.29 |
Primary | 110 | 8.06 |
Secondary | 971 | 71.14 |
Tertiary | 280 | 20.51 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Marital status | ||
Married | 734 | 53.77 |
Not married but living with a partner | 631 | 46.23 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Ever birth | ||
No | 76 | 5.57 |
Yes | 1289 | 94.43 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Birth events | ||
Undelivered or first | 255 | 19.78 |
2–4 deliveries | 732 | 56.79 |
5–7 deliveries | 263 | 20.40 |
8+ deliveries | 39 | 3.03 |
Total | 1289 | 100.00 |
Household size | ||
1–2 members | 640 | 66.53 |
3–5 members | 270 | 28.07 |
6–8 members | 41 | 4.26 |
9+ members | 11 | 1.14 |
Total | 962 | 100.0 |
Work in the last seven days | ||
No | 638 | 46.74 |
Yes | 726 | 53.19 |
Total | 1364 | 100.00 |
Have savings for the future | ||
No | 960 | 70.33 |
Yes | 405 | 29.67 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Have mobile money accounts | ||
No | 883 | 64.69 |
Yes | 482 | 35.31 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Internet access | ||
No | 883 | 64.69 |
Yes | 482 | 35.31 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Have insurance health or be a member of a mutual health organization | ||
No | 1175 | 86.08 |
Yes | 190 | 13.92 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Religion | ||
Catholic | 170 | 13.01 |
Protestant | 96 | 7.35 |
Other Christian | 853 | 65.26 |
Kimbanguiste | 47 | 3.60 |
Islamic | 22 | 1.68 |
African (bundu, vuvamu, animist) | 14 | 1.07 |
Other religion | 105 | 8.03 |
Total | 1307 | 100.00 |
Slum EA | ||
Non-slum | 285 | 20.88 |
Slum | 1080 | 79.12 |
Total | 1365 | 100.00 |
Wealth quintile | ||
Lowest | 223 | 23.16 |
Lower | 194 | 20.15 |
Middle | 201 | 20.87 |
Higher | 178 | 18.48 |
Highest | 167 | 17.34 |
Total | 963 | 100.00 |
PC1 Named “Safety and Free from Threats” | PC2 Named “Control over Sex/Sexuality” | PC3 Named “Household Decision Making” | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
cOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | cOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | cOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | |
Age (years) | ||||||
15–29 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
30–39 | 1.54 (1.12, 2.12) | 1.52 (0.93, 2.50) | 0.97 (0.71, 1.32) | 0.91 (0.58, 1.43) | 1.79 (1.29, 2.48) | 1.39 (0.87, 2.20) |
40–45 | 1.66 (1.16, 2.36) | 1.76 (0.99, 3.12) | 1.27 (0.91, 1.79) | 1.35 (0.80, 2.29) | 1.82 (1.28, 2.62) | 2.02 (1.18, 3.46) |
Education | ||||||
Never or Primary | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Secondary | 1.20 (0.69, 2.07) | 0.84 (0.41, 1.71) | 0.89 (0.57, 1.38) | 1.21 (0.67, 2.18) | 1.12 (0.67, 1.89) | 0.94 (0.49, 1.79) |
Tertiary | 2.57 (1.45, 4.57) | 1.16 (0.49, 2.72) | 0.33 (0.18, 0.59) | 0.93 (0.41, 2.11) | 1.83 (1.05, 3.19) | 1.42 (0.64, 3.17) |
Marital status | ||||||
Married | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Living with a partner | 0.58 (0.44, 0.76) | 1.02 (0.67, 1.56) | 1.67 (1.28, 2.18) | 1.96 (1.32, 2.89) | 0.97 (0.74, 1.26) | 1.84 (1.23, 2.75) |
Birth events | ||||||
Undelivered or first | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
2–4 deliveries | 1.12 (0.78, 1.59) | 0.98 (0.59, 1,63) | 1.22 (0.84, 1.78) | 1.56 (0.92, 2.63) | 1.39 (0.96, 2.01) | 1.33 (0.80, 2.19) |
5–7 deliveries | 0.82 (0.53, 1.29) | 0.77 (0.39, 1.48) | 1.66 (1.08, 2.57) | 1.64 (0.86, 3.11) | 0.91 (0.57, 1.45) | 0.81 (0.42, 1.56) |
8+ deliveries | 1.06 (0.46, 2.44) | 1.01 (0.32, 3.21) | 2.84 (1.36, 5.91) | 3.83 (1.42, 10.30) | 1.08 (0.45, 2.60) | 1.66 (0.58, 4.76) |
Household size | ||||||
1–2 members | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
3–5 members | 1.11 (0.78, 1.58) | 1.11 (0.75, 1.65) | 1.09 (0.78, 1.54) | 1.31 (0.89, 1.91) | 1.15 (0.82, 1.62) | 1.24 (0.85, 1.81) |
6–8 members | 1.19 (0.56, 2.57) | 1.37 (0.61, 3.11) | 1.52 (0.76, 3.06) | 2.23 (1.05, 4.73) | 1.22 (0.58, 2.55) | 1.35 (0.60, 3.04) |
9+ members | 0.42 (0.05, 3.35) | 0.39 (0.05, 3.51) | 0.82 (0.17, 3.82) | 0.35 (0.04, 3.08) | 0.84 (0.18, 3.93) | 0.43 (0.05, 3.62) |
Work in the last seven days | ||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 1.04 (0.72, 1.52) | 0.81 (0.57, 1,15) | 0.84 (0.59, 1.19) | |||
Have savings for the future | ||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 1.11 (0.84, 1.48) | 1.09 (0.73, 1.63) | 0.71 (0.52, 0.96) | 0.87 (0.58, 1.31) | 1.27 (0.96, 1.69) | 1.27 (0.86, 1.86) |
Have mobile money accounts | ||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 2.06 (1.57, 2.69) | 1.42 (0.95, 2.12) | 0.68 (0.51, 0.91) | 0.89 (0.59, 1.35) | 1.56 (1.19, 2.05) | 1.19 (0.81, 1.77) |
Internet access (exposure to media) | ||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 2.18 (1.67, 2.86) | 1.83 (1.19, 2.83) | 0.68 (0.51, 0.91) | 1.11 (0.71, 1.73) | 1.66 (1.26, 2.17) | 1.57 (1.02, 2.40) |
Have insurance health or be a member of a mutual health organization | ||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 1.04 (0.71, 1.52) | 0.73 (0.43, 1.23) | 0.69 (0.45, 1.05) | 0.92 (0.54, 1.59) | 1.34 (0.93, 1.93) | 0.91 (0.55, 1.50) |
Religion | ||||||
Catholic | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Protestant | 0.91 (0.49, 1.68) | 0.85 (0.41, 1.76) | 1.51 (0.85, 2.69) | 1.32 (0.67, 2.60) | 1.26 (0.69, 2.29) | 1.17 (0.59, 2.34) |
Other Christian | 0.85 (0.57, 1.27) | 0.79 (0.48, 1.29) | 0.95 (0.63, 1.42) | 0.90 (0.55, 1.47) | 0.97 (0.64, 1.47) | 0.98 (0.60, 1.61) |
Kimbanguiste | 0.24 (0.07, 0.81) | 0.28 (0.06, 1.31) | 0.68 (0.28, 1.64) | 0.65 (0.25, 1.70) | 0.95 (0.42, 2.15) | 0.79 (0.29, 2.18) |
Islamic | 1.02 (0.35, 2.95) | 1.77 (0.52, 6.01) | 0.40 (0.09, 1.79) | 0.54 (0.11, 2.72) | ||
African (bundu, vuvamu, animist) | 1.93 (0.61, 6.10) | 4.64 (0.59, 36.47) | 1.05 (0.28, 3.98) | 1.02 (0.09, 11.13) | 1.60 (0.47, 5.41) | 4.69 (0.58, 38.04) |
Other religion | 1.09 (0.61, 1.93) | 1.16 (0.57, 2.38) | 0.85 (0.46, 1.58) | 0.85 (0.42, 1.74) | 1.19 (0.66, 2.14) | 1.02 (0.49, 2.08) |
Slum EA | ||||||
Non-slum | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Slum | 0.59 (0.44, 0.81) | 0.77 (0.51, 1.16) | 1.29 (0.92, 1.83) | 1.05 (0.67, 1.62) | 0.59 (0.44, 0.81) | 0.66 (0.44, 0.99) |
Wealth quintile | ||||||
Lowest | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Lower | 1.68 (0.96, 2.94) | 1.49 (0.80, 2.81) | 0.61 (0.38, 0.96) | 0.75 (0.45, 1.26) | 0.94 (0.57, 1.56) | 0.93 (0.53, 1.63) |
Middle | 1.49 (0.85, 2.63) | 1.12 (0.59, 2.14) | 0.72 (0.46, 1.11) | 0.85 (0.51, 1.41) | 1.03 (0.63, 1.69) | 0.89 (0.51, 1.56) |
Higher | 2.76 (1.62, 4.71) | 1.59 (0.82, 3.07) | 0.61 (0.38, 0.97) | 0.79 (0.44, 1.42) | 1.46 (0.90, 2.36) | 0.97 (0.53, 1.78) |
Highest | 3.48 (2.05, 5.92) | 1.40 (0.69, 2.87) | 0.57 (0.35, 0.92) | 0.89 (0.46, 1.75) | 2.01 (1.25, 3.22) | 1.08 (0.56, 2.08) |
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Makongote, A.; Mbunga, B.; Akilimali, P.; Castro Lopes, S.; Mpunga, D. Women’s Empowerment and Associated Factors in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: A Secondary Data Analysis of the Performance Monitoring Assessment Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, 943. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070943
Makongote A, Mbunga B, Akilimali P, Castro Lopes S, Mpunga D. Women’s Empowerment and Associated Factors in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: A Secondary Data Analysis of the Performance Monitoring Assessment Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2024; 21(7):943. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070943
Chicago/Turabian StyleMakongote, Annick, Branly Mbunga, Pierre Akilimali, Sofia Castro Lopes, and Dieudonné Mpunga. 2024. "Women’s Empowerment and Associated Factors in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: A Secondary Data Analysis of the Performance Monitoring Assessment Survey" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 21, no. 7: 943. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070943
APA StyleMakongote, A., Mbunga, B., Akilimali, P., Castro Lopes, S., & Mpunga, D. (2024). Women’s Empowerment and Associated Factors in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: A Secondary Data Analysis of the Performance Monitoring Assessment Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(7), 943. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070943