Stigma, Sociodemographic Factors, and Clinical Factors Associated with Psychological Distress among COVID-19 Survivors during the Convalescence Period: A Multi-Centre Study in Malaysia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Respondents
2.2. Data Collection and Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.4. Ethics
3. Results
3.1. Respondent Characteristics
3.2. Associations among Demographic and Clinical Characteristics, Perceived Stigma, and Psychological Distress among COVID-19 Survivors One Month after Discharge
3.3. Associations among Demographic and Clinical Characteristics, Perceived Stigma, and Psychological Distress in COVID-19 Survivors Six Months after Discharge
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Subjects One Month after Discharge | Subjects Six Months after Discharge | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Participants (n = 219) | Percentage (%) | Number of Participants (n = 219) | Percentage (%) | ||
Age | 32.0 # | 22.0 $ | 34.0 # | 19.0 $ | 0.329 |
Gender: | |||||
Female | 80 | 36.5 | 54 | 35.5 | |
Male | 139 | 63.5 | 98 | 64.5 | 0.930 |
Ethnicity: | |||||
Malay | 168 | 76.7 | 125 | 82.2 | |
Non-Malay | 51 | 23.3 | 27 | 17.8 | 0.248 |
Employment status: | |||||
Retired | 14 | 6.4 | 10 | 6.6 | |
Unemployed/housewife/student | 87 | 39.7 | 27 | 17.8 | |
Employed | 118 | 53.9 | 115 | 75.7 | <0.001 * |
Monthly household income: | |||||
<RM 5000 | 0 | 0.0 | 95 | 62.5 | |
RM 5000–RM 10,000 | 184 | 84.0 | 43 | 28.3 | |
>RM 10,000 | 35 | 16.0 | 14 | 9.2 | <0.001 * |
Marital status: | |||||
Married | 98 | 55.3 | 83 | 54.6 | |
Single/divorced/separated | 121 | 44.7 | 69 | 45.4 | 0.062 |
Education status: | |||||
Primary education | 9 | 4.1 | 8 | 5.3 | |
Secondary education | 60 | 27.4 | 50 | 32.9 | |
Tertiary education | 150 | 68.5 | 94 | 61.8 | 0.411 |
History of psychiatric illness: | |||||
No | 211 | 96.3 | 146 | 96.1 | |
Yes | 8 | 3.7 | 6 | 3.9 | 0.884 |
History of medical illness: | |||||
No | 169 | 77.2 | 113 | 74.3 | |
Yes | 50 | 22.8 | 39 | 25.7 | 0.531 |
Counselling-seeking behaviour: | |||||
No | 148 | 67.6 | 86 | 56.6 | 0.031 * |
Yes | 71 | 31.4 | 66 | 43.4 | |
Median total EMIC score | 11.0 # | 9.0 $ | 5.5 # | 8.0 $ | <0.001 * |
Median total K6 score | 9.0 # | 7.0 $ | 10.0 # | 5.0 $ | 0.272 |
Variables | B | BCa 95% Confidence Interval | Standard Error | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||||
Age | −0.033 | −0.084 | 0.021 | 0.025 | 0.170 |
Gender: | |||||
Male | Reference | ||||
Female | 0.629 | −0.588 | 1.815 | 0.563 | 0.248 |
Ethnicity: | |||||
Non-Malay | Reference | ||||
Malay | −0.092 | −1.351 | 1.274 | 0.631 | 0.874 |
Employment status: | |||||
Employed | Reference | ||||
Retired | −2.207 | −4.139 | −0.068 | 1.090 | 0.034 * |
Unemployed/housewife/student | −0.751 | −1.839 | 0.284 | 0.606 | 0.218 |
Monthly household income: | |||||
RM 5000–RM 10,000 | Reference | ||||
>RM 10,000 | −1.576 | −2.714 | −0.505 | 0.556 | 0.006 * |
Marital status: | |||||
Married | Reference | ||||
Single/divorced/separated | 0.326 | −0.990 | 1.689 | 0.703 | 0.647 |
Education status: | |||||
Tertiary education | Reference | ||||
Secondary education | −0.516 | −1.850 | 1.046 | 0.679 | 0.481 |
Primary education | −2.474 | −4.500 | −0.521 | 1.027 | 0.014 * |
History of psychiatric illness: | |||||
No | Reference | ||||
Yes | 6.363 | 2.599 | 9.676 | 1.865 | 0.002 * |
History of medical illness: | |||||
No | Reference | ||||
Yes | 0.127 | −1.215 | 1.407 | 0.628 | 0.832 |
Counselling-seeking behaviour: | |||||
No | Reference | ||||
Yes | 1.737 | 0.385 | 3.117 | 0.648 | 0.016 * |
Total EMIC score | −0.028 | −0.113 | 0.046 | 0.041 | 0.487 |
Variables | B | BCa 95% Confidence Interval | Standard Error | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||||
Age | −0.032 | −0.126 | 0.060 | 0.037 | 0.395 |
Gender: | |||||
Male | Reference | ||||
Female | −0.079 | −1.524 | 1.269 | 0.698 | 0.918 |
Ethnicity: | |||||
Non-Malay | Reference | ||||
Malay | −0.273 | −2.269 | 1.769 | 0.964 | 0.808 |
Employment status: | |||||
Employed | Reference | ||||
Retired | 0.071 | −2.830 | 4.694 | 1.891 | 0.960 |
Unemployed/housewife/student | −0.610 | −2.025 | 1.069 | 0.755 | 0.431 |
Monthly household income: | |||||
<RM 5000 | Reference | ||||
RM 5000–RM 10,000 | 0.808 | −1.799 | 3.053 | 1.390 | 0.549 |
>RM 10,000 | 0.451 | −2.297 | 2.877 | 1.372 | 0.731 |
Marital status: | |||||
Married | Reference | ||||
Single/divorced/separated | 0.326 | −1.415 | 2.317 | 0.925 | 0.659 |
Education status: | |||||
Tertiary education | Reference | ||||
Secondary education | −0.516 | −2.025 | 1.069 | 0.755 | 0.431 |
Primary education | −2.474 | −2.830 | 4.694 | 1.891 | 0.960 |
History of psychiatric illness: | |||||
No | Reference | ||||
Yes | 2.887 | 0.469 | 6.437 | 1.523 | 0.038 * |
History of medical illness: | |||||
No | Reference | ||||
Yes | 1.136 | 0.801 | 2.895 | 0.827 | 0.188 |
Counselling-seeking behaviour: | |||||
No | Reference | ||||
Yes | 1.480 | 0.173 | 2.618 | 0.681 | 0.032 * |
Total EMIC score | 0.197 | 0.089 | 0.300 | 0.051 | 0.002 * |
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Share and Cite
Abdul Taib, N.I.; Nik Jaafar, N.R.; Azman, N.; Leong Bin Abdullah, M.F.I.; Mohamad Kamal, N.A.; Baharudin, A.; Bin Abdullah, M.N.; Chidambaram, S.K.; Adlan, A.; Tan, L.H.; et al. Stigma, Sociodemographic Factors, and Clinical Factors Associated with Psychological Distress among COVID-19 Survivors during the Convalescence Period: A Multi-Centre Study in Malaysia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 3795. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053795
Abdul Taib NI, Nik Jaafar NR, Azman N, Leong Bin Abdullah MFI, Mohamad Kamal NA, Baharudin A, Bin Abdullah MN, Chidambaram SK, Adlan A, Tan LH, et al. Stigma, Sociodemographic Factors, and Clinical Factors Associated with Psychological Distress among COVID-19 Survivors during the Convalescence Period: A Multi-Centre Study in Malaysia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(5):3795. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053795
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbdul Taib, Nur Iwana, Nik Ruzyanei Nik Jaafar, Nazirah Azman, Mohammad Farris Iman Leong Bin Abdullah, Nurul Ain Mohamad Kamal, Azlin Baharudin, Muhammad Najib Bin Abdullah, Suresh Kumar Chidambaram, Alif Adlan, Loong Hui Tan, and et al. 2023. "Stigma, Sociodemographic Factors, and Clinical Factors Associated with Psychological Distress among COVID-19 Survivors during the Convalescence Period: A Multi-Centre Study in Malaysia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 5: 3795. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053795